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Original scientific article   DOI: https://doi.org/10.35469ak.2024.460
received: 2024-07-25 UDC: 613.2:799.3

DIETARY HABITS OF SHOOTING ATHLETES:
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SLOVENIAN AND FOREIGN 

ATHLETES

Tadeja JAKUS1, Nika ČERNE1, Mojca STUBELJ1

1Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Izola, Slovenia

Corresponding author:
Tadeja Jakus

Department of Nutritional Counseling – Dietetics,
Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Primorska, Polje 42, SI-6310 Izola, 

Slovenia
E-mail: tadeja.jakus@upr.si

ABSTRACT

Purpose: Shooting is a sport in which dietary habits and the timing of meals is not 
often represented. The aim of this paper is to compare the dietary habits, timing of me-
als and training frequency of Slovenian and foreign athletes.

Methods: The sample included 88 shooter athletes (35 Slovenian and 53 foreign 
athletes), aged 14 to 60, who participate in competitions. Data by dietary habits, diet, 
training and BMI were collected via a questionnaire.

Results: Athletes train and compete most frequently using an air rifle. Foreign athle-
tes train more often and spend more time training than Slovenian athletes (p <  0.001). 
The average BMI was 24.9 ± 4.9 kg/m2 and was higher in athletes who competed at 
national level (26.8 ± 5.6 kg/m2) compared to international level (23.0 ± 3.1 kg/m2) 
(p = 0.022). We found a difference between the groups in lunch (p = 0.041), morning 
(p = 0.020) and evening (p = 0.008) snacks. Slovenian athletes reached for food du-
ring training less frequently than foreign athletes (p = 0.007). More than half of the 
athletes eat their first post-workout meal within 1-2 hours after training but only 8.6% 
of Slovenian athletes plan a meal after training, in comparison with 54.7% of foreign 
athletes (p < 0.001).

Conclusions: This study highlights significant differences in the timing and frequen-
cy of meals and dietary planning by Slovenian and foreign shooting athletes. Foreign 



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athletes tend to train more frequently, have better nutritional planning and eat more 
meals after training than their Slovenian counterparts.

Keywords: shooting, nutrition, eating behaviour

PREHRANSKE NAVADE ŠPORTNIKOV V STRELSTVU: 
PRIMERJALNA ŠTUDIJA SLOVENSKIH IN TUJIH 

ŠPORTNIKOV

IZVLEČEK

Namen: Strelstvo je šport, kjer so prehranske navade in režim prehranjevanja sla-
bo raziskani. Namen članka je primerjati prehranske navade, režim prehranjevanja in 
pogostnost treninga slovenskih in tujih športnikov.

Metode: Vzorec je vključeval 88 kategoriziranih strelcev športnikov (35 slovenskih 
in 53 tujih) med 14 in 60 letom starosti, ki sodelujejo na tekmovanjih. Podatki o pre-
hranjevalnih navadah, prehrani, treningu in indeksu telesne mase (ITM) so bili zbrani 
z uporabo vprašalnika. 

Rezultati: Športniki najpogosteje trenirajo in tekmujejo z zračno puško. Tuji špor-
tniki trenirajo pogosteje in več časa kot slovenski (p < 0,001). Povprečni ITM je 
bil 24,9 ± 4,9 kg/m² in je bil višji pri športnikih, ki tekmujejo na nacionalni ravni 
(26,8 ± 5,6 kg/m²) v primerjavi s svetovno ravnijo (23,0 ± 3,1 kg/m²) (p = 0,022). 
Ugotovili smo razlike v pogostnosti uživanja obrokov med slovenskimi in tujimi 
športniki pri kosilu (p = 0,041), dopoldanski (p = 0,020) in popoldanski (p = 0,008) 
malici. Slovenski športniki med treningom redkeje posegajo po hrani v primerjavi s tu-
jimi (p = 0,007). Več kot polovica športnikov zaužije prvi obrok po treningu v 1–2 urah 
po vadbi, vendar le 8,6 % slovenskih športnikov načrtuje obrok po treningu, medtem ko 
to počne kar 54.7% tujih (p < 0,001).

Zaključek: Študija poudarja pomembne razlike v času in pogostnosti obrokov ter 
načrtovanju prehrane med slovenskimi in tujimi strelci. Tuji športniki pogosteje treni-
rajo, imajo bolje načrtovano prehrano in zaužijejo več obrokov po treningu kot njihovi 
slovenski kolegi.

Ključne besede: strelstvo, prehrana, prehranske navade



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INTRODUCTION

Shooting is one of the oldest sports disciplines in the world and has a long 
history in the Olympics (Molla, Sadeghi & Bayati, 2018). The history of mar-
ksmanship in Slovenia dates back to the 16th century (1562), when the soci-
ety of Ljubljana sharpshooters, one of the first in Europe, is first mentioned 
(Shooting Union of Slovenia, 1991). Shooting is a sport with over 15 cate-
gories and is a skill-based sport where consistency, accuracy, speed shooting 
and concentration are key features. Strength and endurance are also important 
for supporting the firearm for long periods (Sports dietetians Australia, 2010). 
Coaches’ experience shows that body sway significantly impacts performance 
(Mon, Zakynthinaki, & Calero, 2019), which is associated with age, body hei-
ght and body mass (Hue et al., 2007). Research indicates that the average body 
mass of shooters is higher than in other sports (Heazlewood et al., 2016; Mon, 
Zakynthinaki, Cordente, Monroy & López, 2014), but this is due to lean muscle 
mass (Fortes de Souza, Barroso, Barbosa, Telles & Andries, 2015). Several stu-
dies have shown a positive correlation between muscle mass and shooting per-
formance (Mon et al., 2019; Peljha, Michaelides & Collins, 2018). However, 
extremely low or high body mass can lead to poor muscle stability and thus 
contribute to poorer results (Hue et al., 2007). 

Today it is known that nutrition also contributes to stable body and muscle 
mass, but not only that. Maintaining concentration, preventing physical and 
mental fatigue, and promoting adaptation to maximise the benefits from time 
spent in the shooting range or gym are the primary goals of shooter sport nutri-
tion (Novan, Irianto, Komarudin & Awwaludin, 2021; Spriet & Gibala, 2004). 
Research shows that bioactive components in foods can influence concentra-
tion, focus and relaxation, which are important for shooters (Boyle, Lawton 
& Dye, 2017, Yilmaz et al., 2023, Machado, Durate, Mostarda, Irigoyen, & 
Rigatto, 2016). Likewise positioning meals around training sessions is useful 
for performance, appetite and supporting body composition. Portion-advised 
and well-timed meals and snacks can prevent over-eating later in the day 
(Jalph & Kaur, 2023). Choosing high-quality carbohydrate-based meals and 
snacks with small amounts of protein prior to training helps maximise en-
ergy needed by the eyes, muscles and brain for enhanced concentration and 
stamina (Sports dietetians Australia, 2010). During training sessions, which 
can last for several hours, it is also important to replenish energy and fluids. 
For athletes training for more than one hour, it is recommended to ensure 
adequate carbohydrate intake during exercise. Current nutritional guidelines 
for athletes advise to consume carbohydrates during exercise at different rates 



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(30-90 g/h) and in relation to the duration of exercise bouts (Podlogar & 
Wallis, 2022). In the case of shorter training sessions or competitions (< 1 h), 
carbohydrate mouth rinsing is recommended, as research shows that carbohy-
drates can be sensed in the oral cavity, causing an activation of certain brain 
regions, leading to stimulation of the central nervous system, as shown by 
improved performance (Chambers, Bridge & Jones, 2009). During training, 
it is also necessary to ensure adequate hydration. Sometimes, temperatures at 
the shooting range can be very high or low, both of which increase the risk of 
dehydration (Morgenthaler & Shumway, 2002). Proper hydration is critical 
for athletes. Ensuring adequate fluid intake before, during, and after exercise 
helps maintain performance and prevent dehydration, which can negatively 
impact focus and precision (Laxmeshwar & Hiremath, 2017). Similarly, nu-
trition is shown to be an important factor for recovery after exercise. Research 
indicates that both the timing of the first meal consumed immediately after 
exercise (within 2 hours of exercise) and its composition (a combination of 
carbohydrates and proteins) are of significance (Amawi et al., 2024; Nhung 
& Khanh, 2023). Therefore, planning the post-training meal ahead of the ex-
ercise itself is crucial.

From reviewing the literature, we found a very limited number of stud-
ies examining the dietary habits of shooter athletes, even though diet, as 
described, can impact the health and performance outcomes of athletes. 
Therefore, our intention was to investigate the dietary habits of athletes in 
relation to training, as well as the frequency of food consumption. The study 
highlights the importance of timing and composition of meals relative to 
training (before/during/after training) and aims to provide insight into opti-
mising dietary practices tailored for shooter athletes, potentially enhancing 
their performance and well-being.

From reviewing the literature, we found a very limited number of studies 
examining the dietary habits of shooter athletes, even though diet, as descri-
bed, can impact the health and performance outcomes of athletes. Therefore, 
our intention was to investigate the dietary habits of athletes in relation to 
training, as well as the frequency of food consumption. The study highlights 
the importance of timing and composition of meals relative to training (befo-
re/during/after training) and aims to provide insight into optimising dietary 
practices tailored for shooter athletes, potentially enhancing their performan-
ce and well-being.



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METHODS

Questionnaire

The questionnaire designed for this study consisted of several sets of va-
lidated questions and covered basic socio-demographic data, nutrition and 
physical/sport activity. We utilised an adapted section of the European Health 
Interview Survey (EHIS) to evaluate eating habits, including regular diet and 
dietary type (Eurostat European Commission, 2018). Additionally, we incor-
porated elements from the pilot study for the Assessment of Nutrient Intake 
and Food Consumption Among Kids in Europe (PANCAKE) to analyse 
food and meal frequency (Ocké et al., 2012), as well as a portion of the 
FFQ designed to assess food intake within the Slovene population (Bizjak, 
Jenko-Pražnikar & Seljak, 2014). The food choices were based on a valida-
ted questionnaire for athletes (Ishikawa-Takata, Okamoto, Taguchi, 2021). 
The training questionnaire design was carried out by professional coaches 
and dietitians. The survey questionnaire was initially tested on a smaller 
sample of athletes to check whether the athletes understood the questions. 
The final questionnaire included 22 questions items relating to three different 
areas: demographics, nutrition and sports activity. We forwarded the e-que-
stionnaire to the Shooting Association of Slovenia and Slovenian shooting 
clubs, and it was also forwarded to 9 foreign countries and their shooting 
association and clubs (Austria, Italy, Denmark, Norway, Russia, Croatia, 
Germany, Serbia and Finland). The responses regarding height and weight 
enabled us to calculate the athletes’ body mass index (BMI). BMI is defined 
as a person’s weight in kilogrammes divided by the square of the person’s 
height in metres (kg/m2). 

The study protocol was approved by the Commission of the University of 
Primorska for Ethics in Human Subjects Research (KER UP) (No. 4264-19-
6/23 and 17/01/23). 



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Participants

161 athletes (65 Slovenian and 96 foreign athletes) took part in the online 
survey. However, we subsequently excluded 73 (45%) questionnaires from the 
analysis due to incomplete data or participants not taking part in a competition. 
The final sample consisted of 88 correctly completed questionnaires, which 
were answered by 35 Slovenian and 53 foreign athletes.

Statistical analyses

The collected data were processed using the IBM-SPSS statistical softwa-
re version 22.0. Quantitative data analysis was based on descriptive statistics. 
Normal distribution was assessed using skewness and kurtosis coefficients. To 
analyse differences in body mass index (BMI) between genders, we used an 
independent t-test and calculated Cohen’s d to assess the effect size. For other 
variables, we performed the non-parametric Mann-Whitney and Kolmogorov-
Smirnov test to compare athletes’ groups and used the Wendt formula to calcu-
late the effect sizes (rb). For comparing correlations between BMI and nutrition 
characteristics, we used the Spearman rho coefficient indicating significant cor-
relations at p < 0.05. 

RESULTS

A total of 42 men (48%) and 46 women (52%) took part in the survey. The 
average age of the participants was 30.6 ± 14.0 years. Of these, 70.5% of the 
athletes were in the 20-60 age group , 27.3% were adolescents (14-20 years) 
and 2.3% were older adults (> 60 years). We no found differences in body 
weight (77.3 ± 16.3 kg vs. 70.9 ± 15.6 kg), BMI (25.8 ± 5.1 kg/m2 vs. 24.9 ± 
4.9 kg/m2) and height (173 ± 8 cm vs. 171 ± 8 cm) between Slovenians and 
foreigners. Differences in BMI were found between genders (men: 26.0 ± 4.8 
kg/m2, women: 23.8 ± 4.8 kg/m2; t = 2.358, d = 0,724, p = 0.021) and between 
participants in world championships (23.0 ± 3.1 kg/m2) and national competi-
tions (26.8 ± 5.6 kg/m2) (Z = 2.332, rb= 0.585, p = 0.022). The distribution of 
athletes into BMI groups based on nationality, gender and competition is shown 
in Figure 1.



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A

B

A: Comparison of the body mass index of Slovenian and foreign athletes; B: Comparison of the body mass 
index of athletes by gender;

Fig. 1 A,B: Body mass index.



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C

C: Comparison of BMI by competition level.

Fig. 1 C: Body mass index.

The athletes train and compete most frequently with an air rifle (Fig. 2A). 
The two groups differ according to the time they spend training (Z = -3.682, 
rb= 0.441, p < 0.001). Foreign athletes train more frequently and spend more 
time training than Slovenian athletes (Fig. 2C and 2D). However, the time they 
spend on training is related to the level of competition (rho = -0.478, p < 0.001). 
There were also differences between the groups in terms of participation in 
competitions (Z = -4.939, rb= 0.585, p < 0.001). Most foreign athletes partici-
pate in international competitions (35.8%), while Slovenian athletes participate 
more often in national competitions (65.7%) (Fig. 2B). 



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A: Comparison of the firearms categories used by Slovenian and foreign athletes; B: Comparison of the 
competition level of Slovenian and foreign athletes

Figure 2 A,B: Training characteristic.



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C: Comparison of the training frequency (in days) of Slovenian and foreign athletes; D: Comparison of the 
duration of training (in days) of Slovenian and foreign athletes

Figure 2 C,D: Training characteristic.



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Dietary habits of athletes

All Slovenian athletes are omnivores, while among foreign athletes, 74% 
are omnivores, 13% are vegetarians, the rest have various alternative diets. The 
frequency of meal consumption is presented in Table 1. 

All athletes eat dinner regularly (80.7%), while 61.4% of athletes eat brea-
kfast regularly. We found a difference between the groups at lunch (Z = -2.045, 
rb= 0.139, p = 0.041), but otherwise foreign athletes ate lunch slightly less often 
than Slovenian athletes (83.0% vs. 97.1%). There was also a difference in the 
morning snack (Z = -3.117, rb= 0.364, p = 0.020): 58.4% of foreign athletes do 
not eat it, while it is a favourite meal among Slovenian athletes and is eaten 
by 51.4%. The exact opposite trend can be observed for the afternoon snack 
(Z = -2.632, rb= 0.313, p = 0.008), where we also found a statistically signifi-
cant medium negative correlation with BMI (rho = -0.288, p = 0.006). On ave-
rage, athletes consumed 1.7 ± 0.8 L of fluid per day, of which Slovenian athletes 
consumed 1.6 ± 0.8 L/day and foreign athletes 1.8 ± 0.8 L/day (Z = -1.956, 
rb = 0.085, p = 0.496).

Regarding the timing of training, half of the athletes (50%) ate a meal 1-2 
hours before training and a quarter (25%) ate a meal less than one hour before 
training, we found no differences between the groups. However, we found dif-
ferences in the choice of food for the pre-workout meal. Slovenian athletes con-
sumed pasta (Z = -2.058, rb= 0.242, p = 0.040), potatoes (Z = -1.985, rb =  0.226, 
p = 0.050) and red meat (Z = -2.409, rb= 0.284, p = 0.016) more often before 
training than foreign athletes (Table 2), although the effect sizes for these diffe-
rences indicate small to moderate significance.

The two groups differ in terms of food intake during training (Z = -2.697, 
rb= 0.263, p = 0.007), i.e. Slovenian athletes consume meals less frequently 
than foreign athletes (11.4% vs. 37.7%), and a total of 72.7% do not consume 
any food during training. Fluid intake during training is mainly based on water, 
which is consumed by 80% of Slovenian athletes and 94% of foreign athletes. 
Athletes consumed on average 0.3 ± 0.2 L/h during training and we found no 
differences between the groups (Z = -1.414, rb= 0.176, p = 0.157). Slovenian 
athletes do not drink coffee, tea or energy drinks, and even among foreign at-
hletes less than 4% do.

Most Slovenian athletes (60%) eat their first post-workout meal within 1-2 
hours after training, while more than half (52.8%) of foreign athletes eat their 
first post-workout meal immediately after training. Another striking difference 
is that only 8.6% of Slovenian athletes plan a meal after training, while as many 



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Table 1: Meal frequency

Meal and frequency of 
consumption

SI
N (%)

Other 
countries
N (%)

Total 
N (%)

p

Breakfast
Every day
Occasionally
Never

20 (57.1)
8 (22.9)
 6 (17.1)

33 (62.3)
7 (13.2)
13 (24.5)

54 (61.4)
15 (17.0)
19 (21.6)

0.922

Morning snack
Every day
Occasionally
Never

18 (51.4)
7 (20.0)
10 (28.6)

11 (20.8)
11 (20.8)
31 (58.4)

29 (33.0)
18 (20.5)
41 (46.6)

0.020

Lunch
Every day
Occasionally
Never

34 (97.1)
1 (2.9)
 0 (0)

44 (83.0)
7 (13.2)
2 (3.8)

78 (88.6)
8 (9.1)
2 (2.3)

0.041

Evening snack
Every day
Occasionally
Never

6 (17.1)
11 (31.4)
18 (51.4)

24 (45.3)
13 (24.5)
16 (30.2)

30 (34.1)
24 (27.3)
34 (38.6)

0.008

Dinner
Every day
Occasionally
Never

25 (71.4)
7 (20.0)
 3 (8.6)

46 (86.8)
6 (11.3)
1 (1.9)

71 (80.7)
13 (14.8)
4 (4.5)

0.066

Time meals before training
>3 h
2-3 h
1-2 h
<1 h

4 (11.4)
5 (14.3)
21 (60)
5 (14.3)

8 (15.1)
5 (9.4)
23 (43.4)
17 (32.1)

12 (13.6)
10 (11.4)
44 (50)
22 (25)

0.261

Meals enduring training
Yes
No

4 (11.4)
31 (88.6)

20 (37.7)
33 (62.3)

24 (27.3)
64 (72.7)

0.007

Time meals after training
<1h
1-2 h
>2h

14 (40.0)
21 (60.0)
0 (0.0)

28 (52.8)
17 (32.1)
8 (15.1)

42 (47.7)
38 (43.2)
8 (9.1)

0.740

Meal planning after training
Yes
No

3 (8.6)
32 (91.4)

29 (54.7)
24 (45.3)

32 (36.4)
56 (63.6)

<0.001

Occasionally: 2-6 days per week; Never: never eats this meal.



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as 54.7% of foreign athletes do so (Z = -4.379, rb= 0.461, p < 0.001). The effect 
size (rb= 0.461) indicates a moderate to large practical significance. This result 
indicates a significant difference in dietary habits, as foreign athletes are sig-
nificantly more likely to plan a meal after training compared to their Slovenian 
counterparts.

Table 2: Food consumption frequency before training.

Number of meals SI
N (%)

Other 
countries
N (%)

Total 
N (%)

p

Fruits
Often
Occasionally
Never

12 (34.3)
18 (51.4) 
 5 (14.3)

24 (45.3)
23 (43.4)
6 (11.3)

36 (40.9)
41 (46.6)
11 (12.5)

0.323

Vegetable salad
Often
Occasionally
Never

15 (42.9)
14 (40.0)
 6 (17.1)

17 (32.1)
19(35.8)
17 (32.1)

32 (36.4)
33 (37.5)
23 (26.1)

0.141

Soup
Often
Occasionally
Never

11 (31.4)
15 (42.9)
9 (25.7)

10 (18.9)
22 (41.5)
21 (39.6)

21 (23.9)
37 (42.0)
30 (34.1)

0.110

Potato
Often
Occasionally
Never

18 (51.4)
13 (37.1)
 4 (11.4)

17 (32.1)
24 (45.3)
12 (22.6)

35 (39.8)
37 (42.0)
16 (18.2)

0.050

Pasta
Often
Occasionally
Never

19 (54.3)
13 (37.1)
 3 (8.6)

20 (37.7)
18 (34.0)
15 (28.3)

39 (44.3)
31 (35.2)
18 (20.5)

0.040

Rice
Often
Occasionally
Never 

18 (51.4)
13 (37.1)
4 (11.4)

24 (45.3)
18 (34.0)
11 (20.8)

42 (47.7)
31 (35.2)
15 (17.0)

0.390

White meat
Often
Occasionally
Never

20 (57.1)
13 (37.1)
2 (5.7)

26 (49.1)
11 (20.8)
16 (30.2)

46 (52.3)
24 (27.3)
18 (20.5)

0.116



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Number of meals SI
N (%)

Other 
countries
N (%)

Total 
N (%)

p

Red meat
Often
Occasionally
Never

11 (31.4)
20 (57.1)
4 (11.4)

12 (22.6)
19 (35.8)
22 (41.5)

23 (26.1)
39 (44.3)
26 (29.5)

0.016

Fish
Often 
Occasionally
Never

2 (5.7)
24 (68.6)
9 (25.7)

11 (20.8)
19(35.8)
23(43.4)

13 (14.8)
43 (48.9)
32 (36.4)

0.634

Milk drinks
Often
Occasionally
Never

7 (20.0)
20 (57.1)
8 (22.9)

22 (41.5)
22 (41.5)
9 (17.0)

29 (33.0)
42 (47.7)
17 (19.3)

0.068

Nuts
Often
Occasionally
Never

7 (20.0)
19 (54.3)
9 (25.7)

19 (35.8)
26 (49.1)
8 (15.1)

26 (29.5)
45 (51.1)
17 (19.3)

0.079

Often: every day; Occasionally: 2-6 days per week; Never: never eats these foods before training.

DISCUSSION

Research shows that body mass can have an influence on body sway during a 
shot and is therefore linked to shooting success (Mon et al., 2014, 2019). A higher 
BMI with less body fat can lead to more strength and stability in the joints of the 
lower limbs, resulting in better static balance in athletes (Kerr & Stewart, 2008). 
Also, in our case, we have shown that the average BMI of the athletes is slightly 
above the cut-off that defines a normal value, but due to the reduced body com-
position measurements, we cannot know whether this is at the expense of body 
fat or muscle mass. However, the fact is that 12.5% of the athletes had a BMI > 
30 kg/m2, which could have influenced poorer results. Individuals with a BMI 
over 30 kg/m2 are less likely to remain in a stable condition and are more likely to 
become obese than those who are not (BMI < 30 kg/m2) (Hills & Parker, 1991; 
McKean, 2010). It is generally recognised that BMI is related to dietary habits 
and eating patterns.

We have shown that there is a difference in nutrition between Slovenian 
and foreign athletes. Slovenian athletes are more likely to have a mid- morning 



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snack and lunch, while foreign athletes are more likely to have an afternoon 
snack. These meals are usually also the meals that athletes eat before training, 
so they are an important source of energy for successful training. Athletes most 
often eat a meal 1-2 hours before training. According to the basic recommenda-
tions for sports nutrition, in this case the meal should consist of 1-2 g carbohy-
drate/kg body weight and 0.3 g protein/kg body weight, and fat intake should 
be limited (Kerksick et al., 2018). We have shown that athletes often reach for 
carbohydrate-containing foods and meat before training. We found a differen-
ce between the two groups in the consumption of potatoes (p = 0.05), pasta 
(p = 0.04) and red meat (p = 0.02), which Slovenians consume more often than 
foreigners. The foods mentioned correspond to the above-mentioned nutrient 
groups in the guidelines, but it would also be necessary to analyse the quanti-
tative intake, as it often happens that athletes consume too much protein and 
fat and not enough carbohydrates (Baranauskas, Jablonskienė, Abaravičius, & 
Stukas, 2020)dietary supplementation and body composition of elite athletes. 
Materials and Methods: The research subjects were 76.7% of Lithuanian elite 
athletes (N = 247).

Athletes usually spend more than 2 hours/day on the shooting range; du-
ring training they usually do not touch food and consume little liquid (0.3 
L/h), in most cases water. Shooters may avoid drinking during competiti-
on so that they do not have to take bathroom breaks. However, the bene-
fits of being well hydrated far outweigh the disadvantages (Sports dietetians 
Australia, 2010). Studies show that the consumption of moderate amounts of 
carbohydrates during exercise leads to a significant increase in psychometric 
parameters in sports shooters, mainly due to a reduction in false and delayed 
reactions (Lachtermann et al., 1999). The combination of low fluid intake 
during training (0.3 L/h) and daily fluid intake (1.7 ± 0.8 L/day) can lead 
to dehydration. Dehydration can impair focus and concentration and have 
a negative impact on skills and coordination (Adan, 2012). Shooters should 
drink adequate fluids to maintain good hydration levels during training and 
competition (Sports dietetians Australia, 2010). In both groups of athletes, 
the daily fluid intake was found to be below the recommended values (2 L/
day), although the fluid requirements vary depending on the athletes’ size 
and gender as well as the environmental conditions (e.g. hot, humid weather, 
which can be common during training and competition). Sports drinks may 
be useful as part of a fluid plan during events as the fluid, carbohydrate and 
electrolyte mix can improve fluid absorption from the gut, improve mental 
focus and promote fluid retention (Pérez-Castillo et al., 2023). 



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Despite the popularity of energy and caffeinated drinks in recent years, we 
have shown that athletes only use caffeinated drinks to a very limited extent 
during training, which is a good thing. Consuming caffeinated drinks may have 
a negative effect in this sport, since it is very important that heart rate is as 
slow as possible in order to have high concentration and avoid hand tremors. 
Consuming coffee or caffeine containing beverages within 1-2 hours before and 
during the competition increases heart rate, hinders aiming during shooting and 
extends trigger-squeezing times (Diler & Erikoğlu Örer, 2021). On the other 
hand, eating foods which contain natural compounds that mimic the effects of 
beta blockers can help calm the nervous system, lower the heart rate or relieve 
anxiety. For shooting athletes, it is potentially beneficial to include magnesium-
-rich foods (seeds, nuts, whole grains) (Boyle et al., 2017), flavonol-rich foods 
such as green or black tea (Yilmaz et al., 2023) and dark chocolate (Machado 
et al., 2016), tryptophan-rich foods (turkey, eggs, cheese, nuts) (Richard et al., 
2009) in their diet. These foods are known to help reduce heart rate, blood pres-
sure and anxiety, while facilitating relaxation and focus. 

Nutrition after training is very important from the point of view of regene-
ration. Recent studies suggest that a recovery meal within 2 hours of exercise, 
as opposed to a meal that is not consumed, improves recovery (Amawi et al., 
2024) and some authors recommend that athletes should consume a carbohy-
drate- and protein-rich meal or snack within 30 minutes of exercise or com-
petition to improve muscle protein synthesis and promote recovery (Nhung & 
Khanh, 2023). In our case, 40% of Slovenian and 52% of foreign athletes ate a 
meal in the first hour after training, but not even a tenth of Slovenian athletes 
plan what they eat after training, in comparison to more than half of foreign 
athletes (p<0.001).

Although our study presents the eating habits of Slovenian and foreign at-
hletes, there are some limitations. BMI was used as a measure of body size. For 
more accurate data, it would be reasonable to use a metric providing a more 
precise assessment of body composition than BMI. This can be evaluated thro-
ugh skinfold measurements, bioelectrical impedance analysis, or DEXA scans. 
We also only have data on the selection of foods before/during training, but not 
their quantity. It would also be necessary to analyse the quantitative intake in 
order to discuss adequate intake. An important aspect of future research also 
remains the consumption of foods that influence concentration, heart rate, and 
stress at shooter athletes.



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CONCLUSION

This study provides a comparative insight into the dietary habits of 
Slovenian and foreign shooting athletes, highlighting significant differences 
in the timing and frequency of meals and dietary planning. Foreign athletes 
tend to train more frequently, have better nutritional planning and eat more 
meals after training than their Slovenian counterparts. Since our research has 
shown that the dietary habits of foreign shooters differ significantly from our 
own, these results give rise to concern that the diet of Slovenian shooters could 
be somewhat neglected. The literature emphasises the importance of nutrition 
for achieving optimal athletic performance, and these results could serve as a 
warning to Slovenian athletes, coaches and sports nutritionists about the need 
to focus more on nutrition, drink enough fluids during training and plan meals 
carefully after training.

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