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23

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL 
CHILDREN IN CROATIA

Vesna BRUMNIĆ1,2, Sanja ŠALAJ3 & Rado PIŠOT4

1University of Applied Sciences “Lavoslav Ružička”, Vukovar, Croatia
2Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Novo mesto, Slovenia

3Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia
4Science and Research Centre Koper, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Slovenia

Corresponding author:
Vesna BRUMNIĆ

University of Applied Sciences “Lavoslav Ružička” in Vukovar, Blage Zadre 2, 
32000 Vukovar, Croatia

Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Novo mesto, Na Loko 2, 8000 Novo mesto, 
Slovenia

Telephone +385 914446904
Mail: vbrumnic@vevu.hr

ABSTRACT

This research investigates how disparities in physical activity and screen time 
among preschoolers can be influenced by parental education and involvement, as well 
as the involvement of the extended family in child-rearing. The study involved 231 
parents who provided information about their children from the three (out of four) re-
gions in Croatia. The analysis revealed statistically significant differences in children’s 
screen time based on the parents’ educational level (p<0.000) and involvement in joint 
physical activity (p<0.000). No differences were found in the children’s screen time or 
physical activity depending on the involvement of extended family members (grandpar-
ents). Less screen time does not automatically mean higher levels of physical activity in 
preschool children. It is essential to determine the factors that influence physical activ-
ity in preschool children and the time they spend in front of screens.

Keywords: preschool children, family, screen time, children’s physical activity

Original scientific article           doi: https://doi.org/10.35469/ak.2025.486
received: 2024-12-12           UDC: 796.011.1-053.4:316.728

mailto:vbrumnic@vevu.hr


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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1

TELESNA DEJAVNOST IN ČAS PRED ZASLONI  
PREDŠOLSKIH OTROK NA HRVAŠKEM

IZVLEČEK

Raziskava preučuje, kako na razlike v telesni dejavnosti in času pred zasloni pri 
predšolskih otrocih vplivajo izobrazba in vključenost njihovih staršev ter vključenost 
razširjene družine v vzgojo otrok. Zajela je 231 staršev iz treh (od štirih) hrvaških regij, 
ki so posredovali podatke o svojih otrocih. Analiza je pokazala statistično značilne 
razlike v času pred zasloni glede na izobrazbo staršev (p<0,000) in vključenost staršev 
v skupne telesne dejavnosti (p<0,000). V zvezi z vključenostjo razširjene družine (sta-
rih staršev) raziskava ni pokazala razlik glede časa pred zasloni ali telesne dejavnosti 
otrok. Manj časa pred zasloni pri predšolskih otrocih ne pomeni nujno več telesne de-
javnosti. Ključno je prepoznati dejavnike, ki vplivajo na telesno dejavnost predšolskih 
otrok in na čas, ki ga preživijo pred zasloni.

Ključne besede: predšolski otroci, družina, čas pred zaslonom, telesna dejavnost 
otrok



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INTRODUCTION

Physical activity (PA) is beneficial for maintaining and enhancing health 
(Hawlader et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2024) and influences the proper growth 
and development of children (Sterdt, Liersch & Walter, 2014; Bingham et al., 
2016; Zeng et al., 2017; Piercy et al., 2018). Although promoting a healthy 
lifestyle is particularly crucial during early childhood (Jones, Hinkley, Okely & 
Salmon, 2013; Hinkley, Brown, Carson & Teychenne, 2018; Tran et al., 2025), 
children are becoming increasingly less physically active (Sobchuk, Connolly 
& Sheehan, 2019; Husu et al., 2024; Phipps et al., 2024). Lifestyles are chang-
ing and modern parenting involves greater supervision of children (Holt et al., 
2016; Day, 2024). Unstructured, free active play outdoors is declining, despite 
its importance for child development (Holt et al., 2016; Bento & Dias, 2017; 
Sobchuk et al., 2019; Dankiw, Tsiros, Baldock & Kumar, 2020; Lee, Shih & 
Tremblay, 2024; Lee, Flouri & Jackson, 2025). For preschool-aged children, 
free outdoor play is the most natural way to engage in PA and is critical for 
promoting healthy development (Caroli et al., 2011; Bento & Dias, 2017). 

Still, participation in structured sports activities is often promoted among 
children, which can pose an additional burden for parents (Day, 2024). The 
demands of employment may prevent parents from providing consistent sup-
port for their children’s PA (Balkó, Balkó, Valter & Jelínek, 2017). For some 
children, daily routines include time spent in kindergarten, and grandparents 
are also often involved in childcare (Budden et al., 2024; Hu et al., 2023). 
Simultaneously, technology is highly accessible to children (Sharkins, Newton, 
Albaiz & Ernest, 2016). While society promotes the importance of screen 
use (Määttä et al., 2017), the development and accessibility of technology 
provide endless entertainment opportunities (Schmidt-Persson et al., 2024). 
Additionally, some parents use screens for educational and parenting purposes 
(Griffith, 2023) and the term “digital babysitter” is becoming increasingly com-
mon (Rhodes, 2017; Lev & Elias, 2020).

Consequently, physical inactivity is increasing across all domains (Pišot, 
2022). The number of children with weight issues (Bentham, Di Cesare, Bllano 
& Boddy, 2017; Jin, Zhou & Chen, 2025), type 2 diabetes mellitus (Temneanu, 
Trandafir & Purcarea, 2016; Serbis, Giapros, Kotanidou, Galli-Tsinopoulou 
& Siomou, 2021), poor posture (Balkó et al., 2017), mental health problems 
(Liang et al., 2024; Schmidt-Persson et al., 2024) and other issues is growing.

Various factors influence children’s PA and screen time (ST). Increasing at-
tention is being paid to the socio-ecological model, which considers a child’s 
individuality, as well as societal and environmental influences on PA and 



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1

sedentary behaviour (SB) (Bronfenbrenner, 1995; Crawford et al., 2010; Lopes, 
Rodrigues, Maia & Malina, 2011; Paudel, Marshall, Veitch, Paudel & Hesketh, 
2025). Accordingly, the aim of this study is to examine differences in PA and ST 
among preschool children, which can be attributed to different levels of parental 
education and the participation of parents and the wider family in upbringing.

METHODS

The research was anonymous and conducted in 2022 in Croatia, encompass-
ing three of the country’s four statistical regions (City of Zagreb, Pannonian 
and Northern Croatia) using a snowball sampling method on a randomly se-
lected sample. The questionnaire included four questions related to descriptive 
data (the gender and age of the children, parental education level and the county 
of residence) and two questions related to the involvement of the immediate 
(parents) and extended family (grandparents) in joint physical activities with 
children, using a Likert scale (ranging from occasionally to often). 

To assess the children’s physical (kinesiological) activity, the Netherlands 
Physical Activity Questionnaire (NPAQ) was used (Janz, Broffitt & Levy, 
2005). The first 7 questions are answered using a Likert scale (range 1 to 5). 
The result is the average of the entered responses. Higher values indicate higher 
amounts of children’s PA. 

The eighth question in this questionnaire is open-ended and pertains to the 
time children spend using screens.

The study posed the following hypotheses:
H1: There are differences in children’s PA and ST depending on the parental 

education level.
H2: There are differences in children’s PA and ST depending on the fre-

quency of parental participation in joint physical activities.
H3: There are differences in children’s PA and ST depending on the fre-

quency of grandparental participation in joint physical activities.
The study included 231 parents who provided data for their children 

(51.9% girls (N=120) and 48.1% boys (N=111)), aged between 2 and 7 years 
(M=5.07±1.36).

Depending on the statistical needs of the hypotheses, the children were as-
signed to different categories. For the analysis of the first hypothesis, the sam-
ple was divided based on parental education level. Of the participants, 64.9% 



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(N=150) had parents with tertiary education (university degree) and 35.1% 
(N=81) had parents with secondary education (high school degree).

For the second hypothesis, children were divided based on the frequency of 
parental participation in joint physical activities. Parental activities with chil-
dren were infrequent in 58.4% (N=135) and frequent in 41.6% (N=96) of cases.

For the third hypothesis, children were divided based on the frequency of 
grandparental participation in physical activities. Grandparents’ activities with 
children were infrequent in 73.2% (N=169) and frequent in 26.8% (N=62) of 
cases.

For statistical data processing, we used IBM SPSS Statistics 19.0. To exam-
ine the data distribution, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was employed. Because 
the distribution of the results was non-normal, we used the Mann-Whitney U 
for group comparisons. Hypotheses were accepted at p<0.05.

RESULTS

Most respondents reside in Pannonian Croatia (41.6%, N=96), followed by 
the City of Zagreb (35.1%, N=81) and Northern Croatia (23.4%, N=54). 

The age range of the children participating in the study was from 2 to 7 years 
(M=5.07, ±1.36), with 70 (30.3%) children aged 2–4 years and 161 (69.7%) 
aged 5–7 years. The average PA level of the children, as assessed using the 
NPAQ, was 3.75 (range 1.29–5, ±0.66). The parents reported that children aged 
5–7 years were slightly more physically active (M=3.77, ±0.67) than children 
aged 2–4 years (M=3.70, ±0.63).

Children aged 2–4 years spent an average of 69.07 min/day in front of 
screens (range 0–210 min/day, ±44.46, N=70), while children aged 5–7 years 
spent 79.32 min/day (range 0–240 min/day, ±44.06, N=161). The average ST 
for all the children was 76.21 min/day, ±44.34.

Parental involvement in joint physical activities with children had an aver-
age score of M=3.24 (range 1–5, ±0.92), while the involvement of grandparents 
averaged M=2.72 (range 1–5, ±1.12).

The results indicate no statistically significant difference in the children’s 
PA (Z=-0.075, p>0.941) based on parental education level (Table 1). The chil-
dren of parents with tertiary education were no more physically active than 
the children of parents with secondary education (M=3.75±0.61, N=150 vs. 
M=3.74±0.75, N=81). However, a statistically significant difference was found 
in ST (Z=-3.83, p<0.000), with the children of parents with tertiary educa-
tion spending less time in front of screens compared to those of parents with 



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ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1

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Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN  ..., 23–46

secondary education (M=67.87±40.89, N=150 vs. M=91.67±46.54, N=81) 
(Table 1). Therefore, hypothesis 1 is partially supported. 

There was no statistically significant difference in the children’s PA (Z=-
1.408, p>0.159) based on the frequency of parental participation in joint physi-
cal activities (Table 1). Children whose parents participated more frequently 
were no more physically active than those whose parents participated less fre-
quently (M=3.81±0.65, N=96 vs. M=3.71±0.66, N=135). However, a statisti-
cally significant difference was found in ST (Z=-3.600, p<0.000), (Table 1). 
Children whose parents participated more frequently in joint physical activi-
ties spent less time in front of screens compared to those whose parents par-
ticipated less frequently (M=65.35±43.77, N=96 vs. M=83.93±43.26, N=135). 
Therefore, hypothesis 2 is partially supported.

There were no significant statistical differences in the children’s PA 
(Z=– 0.104, p>0.917) based on the frequency of their grandparents’ participa-
tion in joint physical activities (Table 1). Children whose grandparents par-
ticipated more frequently were equally active compared to those whose grand-
parents participated less frequently (M=3.74±0.66, N=62 vs. M=3.75±0.66, 
N=169). Similarly, no significant difference was observed in ST (Z=-0.156, 
p>0.876), (Table 1). Children whose grandparents were more frequently in-
volved spent a similar amount of time in front of screens compared to children 
whose grandparents participated less frequently (M=77.73±46.87, N=62 vs. 
M=75.66±43.51, N=169). Therefore, hypothesis 3 is not supported.

DISCUSSION

Based on parental self-reports using the NPAQ, the mean score was 3.75 
(out of 5), with older children showing slightly higher levels of PA than young-
er ones (3.77 vs 3.70). Given the high NPAQ scores obtained, we conclude 
that the children who participated in the study tend to be physically active. 
However, numerous studies show that preschool children are not sufficiently 
physically active (Matarma et al., 2017; Arts et al., 2023). Self-assessment 
using questionnaires is the most common method of assessing PA (Sallis & 
Saelens, 2000), with the possibility of bias (Warnecke, 1997; Ghanamah, 2025; 
Jin et al., 2025). ST is most commonly measured by the parents’ self-reports 
of the amount of time their child spends on screens throughout a typical day 
(Barr et al., 2020). However, this method is imprecise (Barr et al., 2020). Thus, 
careful interpretation of the results is recommended. According to the World 
Health Organisation (2019), children between the ages of 2 and 4 should use 



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screens for no more than 60 min/day. Our results show that children aged 2-4 
years exceed the recommendations, using screens for an average of 69.07 min/
day (range 0-210 min/day). Daily screen exposure for children aged 5 and older 
should not exceed 120 min/day (Tremblay et al., 2014). The average ST in this 
age group in our study is 79.32 min/day (range 0-240 min/day), indicating that 
the recommendations are generally being followed. It is concerning that some 
preschool children use screens for up to 240 min/day. Previous research in 
Croatia (Rogović, Šalaj & Puharić, 2022) and worldwide (Määttä et al., 2017; 
Ma, Li & Chen, 2022; Carballo‐Fazanes, Díaz‐Pereira, Fernández‐Villarino, 
Abelairas‐Gómez & Rey, 2023) show that the average ST regularly exceeds 
the recommended values. Extended interaction with digital screens can have 
detrimental implications for children’s development (Lin, Cherng, Chen, Chen 
& Yang, 2015) and social competencies (Ma et al., 2022). Despite the necessity 
of monitoring children’s screen usage (Ma et al., 2022), findings from a study 
in Australia revealed that 50% of young and preschool children use screens 
without supervision (Rhodes, 2017).

Our study does not show a difference in the children’s PA with respect to pa-
rental education, which is confirmed by some other studies (Kippe & Lagestad, 
2018). It is possible that the lack of a significant correlation between the chil-
dren’s PA and parental education is influenced by the relatively homogeneous 
sample of parents in terms of socioeconomic status and access to PA opportuni-
ties or similar early care and education programmes (similar PA and outdoor 
play standards), which limits variation based on education level. Furthermore, 
parents across different educational levels may have similar perceptions of their 
child’s activity. 

It is important to recognise that when self-assessing PA, inaccurate percep-
tion (overestimation or underestimation) of the activities performed is possible 
(Medina, Jáuregui, Hernández, Shamah, & Barquera, 2021). Warnecke (1997) 
found that individuals exaggerate their participation in PA due to social accept-
ance. Recent findings indicate that parents are not sufficiently familiar with 
the established guidelines for recommended ST and PA for children (Csima, 
Podráczky, Keresztes, Soós, & Fináncz, 2024), potentially contributing to mis-
perceptions and assessments related to these behaviours.

Our analysis did not consider whether the relationship between parental 
education and outcomes is moderated by the gender of the child and/or par-
ents. Thus, Ré et al. (2025) found that sons of highly educated mothers were 
less physically active, since they played with a ball less in their free time. In 
this study, playing with a ball proved to be an important item for meeting the 
recommendations regarding children’s PA. Furthermore, Güven, Dönmez, 



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İncedere and Taşar (2025) found that higher parental health literacy was greater 
among highly educated parents and it was associated with the more frequent 
participation of children in sports activities. Other studies have also found that 
children of highly educated parents are more physically active (Dawson-Hahn, 
Fesinmeyer & Mendoza, 2015; Lampinen et al., 2017; Muñoz-Galiano, Connor, 
Gómez-Ruano & Torres-Luque, 2020; Vorlíček et al., 2025). Conversely, Vale 
et al. (2014) found that more than half of the children of highly educated par-
ents do not meet the recommendations for PA. Some parents believe that it is 
important to engage in joint activities, but they do not prioritise PA over some 
sedentary activities, including joint ST (Thompson et al., 2010). Parents cite 
various factors, such as a fast-paced lifestyle, adverse weather conditions and 
unfavourable socioeconomic status, among others (Thompson et al., 2010). We 
believe that highly educated parents prioritise intellectual activities over physi-
cal ones and emphasise their children’s academic success. It is also possible 
that these children participate in additional activities during their free time that 
further promote academic success. Thus, academic and sports activities replace 
children’s free play (Bento & Dias, 2017). However, numerous other factors 
can also influence children’s PA, such as parental attitudes (Tandon, Saelens & 
Copeland, 2017), parental stress (Maher et al., 2017), adequate family function-
ing (Loprinzi, 2015), etc. 

Our study found that the children of highly educated parents spend less 
time in front of screens, which aligns with the findings from several previ-
ous research projects (Carson & Janssen, 2012; Lin et al., 2015; Määttä et al., 
2017; Burnett et al., 2023). More educated parents tend to be more effective 
in organising their children’s leisure time, ensuring a balance between PA and 
SB (Muñoz-Galiano et al., 2020). In addition, during sedentary time, various 
quiet activities can be conducted without the use of media, such as reading, 
drawing, driving, dining, etc. (Aubert et al., 2022; Chaput et al., 2020). The 
study by Lampinen et al. (2017) identified a gender-specific trend, where lower 
parental education was associated with more sedentary behaviour from screen 
use in boys only. Parents with lower educational attainment may see screen 
use in early childhood as beneficial for future educational and career success 
(Määttä et al., 2017). However, LeBlanc et al. (2015) found that, overall, chil-
dren whose fathers have more than a high school education spend more time in 
sedentary activities and using screens. When analysed by gender, this pattern is 
only evident among daughters, not sons (LeBlanc et al., 2015). 

Our results show no statistically significant difference in the children’s PA 
concerning the frequency of parental participation in joint PA (coactivity), such 
as walking together, playing, going to the park, etc. Several explanations are 



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possible for these results. There is a possible discrepancy between the parents’ 
perceptions and the children’s actual behaviour, because the study was conduct-
ed using questionnaires, not accelerometers. There is also a possible discrep-
ancy between the parents’ perception of joint activity and their actual coactivity 
with children. It is possible that they overestimate (accidentally or intention-
ally) the amount of time they spend in coactivity with children. Such uncer-
tainties could be avoided in future research by using accelerometry for both 
parents and children. We emphasise that the type of PA that parents engage in 
with their children may vary, so not all shared PA is high-intensity. It is possible 
that parents, due to a lack of knowledge, do not take into account low-intensity 
PA achieved during the day when assessing their children’s PA. Low-intensity 
PA is the primary activity level of preschool children, especially girls (Berglind 
& Tynelius, 2018). We can also ask the following question: Are parents physi-
cally active enough? Research indicates that many parents fall short and do not 
meet the PA recommendations (Guthold, Stevens, Riley & Bull, 2018; WHO, 
2020; Bueno et al., 2025). This raises the question of whether parents who 
may not be active enough themselves can accurately assess physical coactiv-
ity with their children. It is possible that some parents have a more sedentary 
lifestyle, which is then reflected in the adoption of similar habits in their chil-
dren (developing habits related to SB and physical inactivity). The PA levels 
and sedentary patterns of children are considerably affected by the example set 
by their parents (Keyes & Willson, 2021), which has an important influence 
on their behaviour (Maia, Braz, Fernandes, Sarmento &Machado-Rodrigues, 
2025; Paudel et al., 2025). In addition, some children naturally prefer sedentary 
activities (Andersen et al., 2017). Therefore, it is possible that parents with 
calmer children encourage them to be more active through joint PA. One pos-
sible reason is that children who engage in PA with their parents are more tired 
and spend less time playing active games in their free time, unlike those who 
participate in such activities with their parents less often. There is evidence sug-
gesting that children who spend more time outside are more physically active 
(Sterdt et al., 2014; Hinkley et al., 2018). Parents can take their children to the 
park, but without other children to play with, the child may not engage in ac-
tive play. Matarma et al. (2017) found that maternal-child coactivity increases 
the children’s PA levels. Other authors have found that parent-child coactiv-
ity influences the likelihood of meeting the recommendations for children’s 
PA (Pyper, Harrington & Manson, 2016; Uijtdewilligen et al., 2017; Hnatiuk, 
Dwyer, George & Bennie, 2020) and improves communication (Thompson 
et al., 2010). Bingham et al. (2016) found a positive correlation between the 
amount of time children spend playing with their parents and their overall 



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PA levels. Parent-child coactivity is more significant at a younger age than 
in the period closer to adolescence (Rhodes et al., 2015). Various neighbour-
hood factors, including parks (Greer, Castrogivanni & Marcello, 2017; Hunter, 
Leatherdale, Spence & Carson, 2022), and parental stress (Maher et al., 2017) 
are crucial in coactivity. Thompson et al. (2010) found that the majority of 
parents believe that joint family PA is important, but despite this, they rarely en-
gage in it. Of all forms of parental behaviour in terms of supporting children’s 
involvement in PA, coactivity is the rarest (as much as 80.5% of parents do not 
participate in joint PA with their children), (Pyper et al., 2016) and 58.4% in 
our study. Interventions that encourage parent-child coactivity are justified and 
very useful (Rhodes & Lim, 2018; Grant et al., 2020). While Rhodes & Lim 
(2018) consider such interventions to be unsuccessful, a study conducted by 
Ha, He, Lubans, Chan and Ng (2022) found that coactivity between children 
and parents increased after an online intervention, namely parent education on 
so-called physical literacy.

Our research indicates that children with parents who often participate in co-
activities tend to spend less time on screens compared to those whose parents 
are less involved in such activities. Although joint ST can promote positive 
family relationships, it is necessary to replace this time with some joint family 
activities that are important for the children’s health (Pyper et al., 2016).

There was no identified difference in the children’s PA or screen usage as-
sociated with the co-activities of grandparents and grandchildren in this study. 
Parental care for preschool children differs from that of grandparents and is su-
perior in developing fundamental motor skills (Hu et al., 2023). Grandparents 
often have limited participation in PA with their grandchildren due to age, ill-
ness and/or injury, finances and the availability of playgrounds in the neigh-
bourhood (Budden et al., 2024), which contributes to screen use (Jongenelis et 
al., 2024) increased sedentary activities and reduced moderate PA (Lu, Shen, 
Huang & Corpeleijn, 2022). Support, the availability of parks/playgrounds in 
the neighbourhood and play equipment positively influence the PA of grand-
children (Jongenelis et al., 2024).

We believe that parents and the extended family are key contributors to 
shaping healthy habits, including PA and ST. However, in our study, physical 
coactivity between parents/grandparents and children did not prove to be a sig-
nificant factor influencing children’s PA. To gain a better understanding of this 
issue, future research should examine how parents/grandparents and children 
engage in physical coactivity, examining the type of activity or play, the loca-
tion (indoors or outdoors), duration, frequency and other relevant factors. 



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PA and ST result from complex interactions of numerous socio-ecological 
factors. Parental influence is multifactorial (support, encouragement, motivation, 
parental PA, etc.), (Rhodes et al., 2015; Pyper et al., 2016; Garriguet, Bushnik & 
Colley, 2017; Arts et al., 2023) and is more dominant than the influence of grand-
parents (Hu et al., 2023). Opportunities for PA at home (Dowda et al., 2011), 
attending kindergarten (Pate, Pfeiffer, Trost, Ziegler & Dowda, 2004; Dowda 
et al., 2011; Matarma et al., 2017; Kippe & Lagestad, 2018), siblings (Matarma 
et al., 2017; Schmutz et al., 2017), place of residence, the proximity and availabil-
ity of parks/playgrounds, neighbourhood safety, play equipment (Terrón-Pérez, 
Molina-García, Martínez-Bello & Queralt, 2021; Huang, Luo & Chen, 2022; Lu 
et al., 2022), playground size, and the availability of sports equipment (Arts et al., 
2023) are also some factors that contribute to children being more physically ac-
tive. Attending kindergarten can affect children’s PA (Sigmundová et al., 2016; 
Matarma et al., 2017; Kippe & Lagestad, 2018) more than family factors (Huang 
et al., 2022). Individual characteristics of the child, such as gender, often deter-
mine higher levels of PA (Pate et al., 2004; Schmutz et al., 2017; Sterdt et al., 
2014), temperament (Schmutz et al., 2017), the child’s inclination towards PA 
(Sterdt et al., 2014), the child’s enjoyment of PA (Dowda et al., 2011), motor 
competencies (Robinson et al., 2015; Carballo‐Fazanes et al., 2023), etc.

SB includes various activities that can have a complex relationship with 
health (Aubert et al., 2022). While reading and calm activities are advanta-
geous for cognitive growth, it is not known that ST has health or developmental 
benefits for young children (Downing, Hnatiuk & Hesketh, 2015). Despite this, 
SB related to screen use increases at the expense of PA, even among preschool 
children (Dawson-Hahn et al., 2015). Consequently, children who devote more 
time to screen use are less likely to engage in PA (Dawson-Hahn et al., 2015; 
del Pozo-Cruz et al., 2019), which may negatively affect their health. Setting 
rules, monitoring time, using screens with the child, having meals without 
screens and encouraging the child to engage in activities can influence ST (Xu, 
Wen & Rissel, 2015).

Most parents believe that the recommendations regarding children’s PA and 
ST are difficult to meet (Hamilton, Hatzis, Kavanagh & White, 2015), while 
some parents are not informed about the guidelines (Csima et al., 2024). Due 
to globalisation and technological development, children are deprived of free 
play (Bento & Dias, 2017). The study by Tandon et al. (2017) found that some 
parents associate outdoor play in colder conditions with a risk of illness, and 
a portion of them prefer their children not to play outside at all. Consequently, 
empowering parents to manage their children’s screen use and foster outdoor 
PA is essential.



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Some countries implement various educational programmes to train edu-
cators (Tran et al., 2025) and parents (Ha et al., 2022; Paudel et al., 2025) in 
leading a healthy lifestyle, as well as interventions that aim to promote PA in 
children while reducing SB and ST (Yoong et al., 2020). Some interventions are 
aimed at the entire family (Phipps et al., 2024). Some strategies include educa-
tional interventions for parents on the importance of coactivity between parents 
and children (Ha et al., 2022), as well as other family members who participate 
in childcare, then developing and strengthening parental awareness of exercise 
(Song & Ge, 2025), empowering the parents in forming correct views on health 
awareness and related behaviours (Vrijkotte, Varkevisser, van Schalkwijk & 
Hartman, 2020). According to Song & Ge (2025), greater parental awareness 
of PA correlates with greater PA in children. According to Loprinzi (2015), 
understanding the underlying factors that impact these behaviours is a neces-
sary foundation for creating, applying and evaluating interventions aimed at 
encouraging PA and limiting sedentary habits in children. Parental awareness 
of their role in shaping their children’s PA is crucial for the creation of effec-
tive intervention strategies (Song & Ge, 2025). Based on this, we present some 
basic suggestions regarding PA and SB for preschool children. 

The basic recommendations regarding PA for preschool children are as 
follows: children aged 1-2 years: a minimum of 180 min of total daily PA; 
3-4 years: at least 180 minutes daily as well, with a minimum of 60 min at mod-
erate to vigorous intensity (Jurakić & Pedešić, 2019; WHO, 2019); children 
aged 5-17 years: an average of 60 min/day of moderate to vigorous PA (Jurakić 
& Pedešić, 2019; WHO, 2020). Parents also need to be informed about the rea-
sons why children should play outside (Bento & Dias, 2017).

The basic recommendations for ST are as follows: children < 2 years: no ST 
is recommended; children 2-4 years: 60 min/day (Jurakić & Pedešić, 2019; 
WHO, 2019); children 5 years and older: 120 min/day (Jurakić & Pedešić, 
2019).

We also believe that it is necessary to implement educational interventions 
aimed at parents, families and kindergarten teachers, providing information on 
recommendations for children’s PA, SB and ST; increase awareness about the 
negative consequences of physical inactivity and prolonged ST in childhood; 
increase health literacy; promote coactivity between parents and children and 
other family members, and free unstructured outdoor play; empower fami-
lies/teachers to foster physically active lifestyles and stimulate active play in 
children.

We believe that additional research should be conducted to more precisely 
determine the various socio-ecological factors (which may also be culturally 



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conditioned) that influence PA, SB and ST in children in Croatia, which would 
more precisely target the goals of strategic measures.

Conducting longitudinal studies covering the entire territory of Croatia 
would allow monitoring changes in children’s PA and SB over time, as well 
as the influence of parents, extended family members and kindergarten teach-
ers. Such designs would allow the identification of cause-and-effect relation-
ships and developmental patterns that cannot be captured by cross-sectional 
approaches. Furthermore, future research should consider using mixed-method 
designs, combining objective measurements of PA and SB (e.g., accelerometry) 
with qualitative methods such as interviews or observations. This would con-
tribute to a better understanding of the multifaceted socio-ecological influences 
on children’s behaviour. By integrating different methodological approaches 
and extending the follow-up period, future studies could better detect dynamic 
changes across developmental stages and provide stronger evidence for devel-
oping and strategically planning interventions.

Encouraging children to move and reduce ST requires a holistic approach 
(Chen et al., 2022) and teamwork (Bento & Dias, 2017). A combination of strat-
egies targeting the individual, family, kindergarten and policy levels is needed 
to improve the effectiveness of preventive measures.

In addition, for more precise and objective results, we recommend measur-
ing PA using more reliable methods in future research (Sterdt et al., 2014), such 
as accelerometry or smartwatches. We also recommend measuring PA simulta-
neously in both children and parents to obtain more accurate results.

LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS  
FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

This study (N = 231) was conducted using a questionnaire, which relied 
on parental self-reporting. This methodology could introduce biases or recall 
errors. The use of accelerometry (or smartwatches) would have contributed to 
greater objectivity in the measurement of children’s PA and SB. Furthermore, 
the study included participants from only three of the four regions of Croatia. 
Limited geographical coverage, as well as potential cultural, socioeconomic 
and other regional differences, may have influenced the children’s PA and SB. 
Consequently, the generalizability of the findings is restricted. The children’s 
age range in the study (2 to 7 years) was relatively wide. Although this range 
primarily includes preschool-aged children, developmental differences within 
this group could affect PA patterns. Future research should aim to increase the 



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sample size and extend data collection to all the Croatian regions to enable the 
more reliable comparisons of results. It would also be beneficial to examine in 
greater detail the impact of parental education, grandparental involvement and 
family habits on children’s PA and SB. Moreover, future questionnaires should 
be expanded to assess other relevant socio-ecological factors that may influ-
ence children’s PA, SB and ST, such as the parents’ socioeconomic status, area 
and region of residence, the parents’ health literacy, family routines, type of 
parent-child coactivity, parental attitudes, environmental influences, environ-
mental characteristics, seasonal variations, climatic conditions, children’s gen-
der, a narrower developmental age range, kindergarten impact, etc. For greater 
generalizability and relevance, it is suggested that future studies incorporate 
participants from varied age groups, demographics and cultural environments.

CONCLUSIONS

PA and the time children spend using screens are influenced by multifacto-
rial factors. Our research shows that ST is lower in the children of more edu-
cated parents and parents who spend more time in joint physical activities with 
their children. It is important to inform parents and family members about rec-
ommendations related to PA and ST and to encourage and empower them to 
proactively manage their children’s free time in order to reduce SB and support 
healthier development. Parents should define clear rules and boundaries and 
limit ST. During ST, it is recommended to watch educational content, prefer-
ably together with children, and play games less. Parents, grandparents and 
educators should encourage children to play more actively, especially outdoors. 
The local community and society in general also play a major role (the acces-
sibility of parks, safety in the neighbourhood, etc.). Various campaigns can also 
be implemented to educate and raise awareness about the importance of chil-
dren’s movement and the harmfulness of SB and physically inactive behaviour 
in childhood. 



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