ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 23 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN IN CROATIA Vesna BRUMNIĆ1,2, Sanja ŠALAJ3 & Rado PIŠOT4 1University of Applied Sciences “Lavoslav Ružička”, Vukovar, Croatia 2Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Novo mesto, Slovenia 3Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Croatia 4Science and Research Centre Koper, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Slovenia Corresponding author: Vesna BRUMNIĆ University of Applied Sciences “Lavoslav Ružička” in Vukovar, Blage Zadre 2, 32000 Vukovar, Croatia Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Novo mesto, Na Loko 2, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia Telephone +385 914446904 Mail: vbrumnic@vevu.hr ABSTRACT This research investigates how disparities in physical activity and screen time among preschoolers can be influenced by parental education and involvement, as well as the involvement of the extended family in child-rearing. The study involved 231 parents who provided information about their children from the three (out of four) re- gions in Croatia. The analysis revealed statistically significant differences in children’s screen time based on the parents’ educational level (p<0.000) and involvement in joint physical activity (p<0.000). No differences were found in the children’s screen time or physical activity depending on the involvement of extended family members (grandpar- ents). Less screen time does not automatically mean higher levels of physical activity in preschool children. It is essential to determine the factors that influence physical activ- ity in preschool children and the time they spend in front of screens. Keywords: preschool children, family, screen time, children’s physical activity Original scientific article doi: https://doi.org/10.35469/ak.2025.486 received: 2024-12-12 UDC: 796.011.1-053.4:316.728 mailto:vbrumnic@vevu.hr 24 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 TELESNA DEJAVNOST IN ČAS PRED ZASLONI PREDŠOLSKIH OTROK NA HRVAŠKEM IZVLEČEK Raziskava preučuje, kako na razlike v telesni dejavnosti in času pred zasloni pri predšolskih otrocih vplivajo izobrazba in vključenost njihovih staršev ter vključenost razširjene družine v vzgojo otrok. Zajela je 231 staršev iz treh (od štirih) hrvaških regij, ki so posredovali podatke o svojih otrocih. Analiza je pokazala statistično značilne razlike v času pred zasloni glede na izobrazbo staršev (p<0,000) in vključenost staršev v skupne telesne dejavnosti (p<0,000). V zvezi z vključenostjo razširjene družine (sta- rih staršev) raziskava ni pokazala razlik glede časa pred zasloni ali telesne dejavnosti otrok. Manj časa pred zasloni pri predšolskih otrocih ne pomeni nujno več telesne de- javnosti. Ključno je prepoznati dejavnike, ki vplivajo na telesno dejavnost predšolskih otrok in na čas, ki ga preživijo pred zasloni. Ključne besede: predšolski otroci, družina, čas pred zaslonom, telesna dejavnost otrok 25 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 INTRODUCTION Physical activity (PA) is beneficial for maintaining and enhancing health (Hawlader et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2024) and influences the proper growth and development of children (Sterdt, Liersch & Walter, 2014; Bingham et al., 2016; Zeng et al., 2017; Piercy et al., 2018). Although promoting a healthy lifestyle is particularly crucial during early childhood (Jones, Hinkley, Okely & Salmon, 2013; Hinkley, Brown, Carson & Teychenne, 2018; Tran et al., 2025), children are becoming increasingly less physically active (Sobchuk, Connolly & Sheehan, 2019; Husu et al., 2024; Phipps et al., 2024). Lifestyles are chang- ing and modern parenting involves greater supervision of children (Holt et al., 2016; Day, 2024). Unstructured, free active play outdoors is declining, despite its importance for child development (Holt et al., 2016; Bento & Dias, 2017; Sobchuk et al., 2019; Dankiw, Tsiros, Baldock & Kumar, 2020; Lee, Shih & Tremblay, 2024; Lee, Flouri & Jackson, 2025). For preschool-aged children, free outdoor play is the most natural way to engage in PA and is critical for promoting healthy development (Caroli et al., 2011; Bento & Dias, 2017). Still, participation in structured sports activities is often promoted among children, which can pose an additional burden for parents (Day, 2024). The demands of employment may prevent parents from providing consistent sup- port for their children’s PA (Balkó, Balkó, Valter & Jelínek, 2017). For some children, daily routines include time spent in kindergarten, and grandparents are also often involved in childcare (Budden et al., 2024; Hu et al., 2023). Simultaneously, technology is highly accessible to children (Sharkins, Newton, Albaiz & Ernest, 2016). While society promotes the importance of screen use (Määttä et al., 2017), the development and accessibility of technology provide endless entertainment opportunities (Schmidt-Persson et al., 2024). Additionally, some parents use screens for educational and parenting purposes (Griffith, 2023) and the term “digital babysitter” is becoming increasingly com- mon (Rhodes, 2017; Lev & Elias, 2020). Consequently, physical inactivity is increasing across all domains (Pišot, 2022). The number of children with weight issues (Bentham, Di Cesare, Bllano & Boddy, 2017; Jin, Zhou & Chen, 2025), type 2 diabetes mellitus (Temneanu, Trandafir & Purcarea, 2016; Serbis, Giapros, Kotanidou, Galli-Tsinopoulou & Siomou, 2021), poor posture (Balkó et al., 2017), mental health problems (Liang et al., 2024; Schmidt-Persson et al., 2024) and other issues is growing. Various factors influence children’s PA and screen time (ST). Increasing at- tention is being paid to the socio-ecological model, which considers a child’s individuality, as well as societal and environmental influences on PA and 26 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 sedentary behaviour (SB) (Bronfenbrenner, 1995; Crawford et al., 2010; Lopes, Rodrigues, Maia & Malina, 2011; Paudel, Marshall, Veitch, Paudel & Hesketh, 2025). Accordingly, the aim of this study is to examine differences in PA and ST among preschool children, which can be attributed to different levels of parental education and the participation of parents and the wider family in upbringing. METHODS The research was anonymous and conducted in 2022 in Croatia, encompass- ing three of the country’s four statistical regions (City of Zagreb, Pannonian and Northern Croatia) using a snowball sampling method on a randomly se- lected sample. The questionnaire included four questions related to descriptive data (the gender and age of the children, parental education level and the county of residence) and two questions related to the involvement of the immediate (parents) and extended family (grandparents) in joint physical activities with children, using a Likert scale (ranging from occasionally to often). To assess the children’s physical (kinesiological) activity, the Netherlands Physical Activity Questionnaire (NPAQ) was used (Janz, Broffitt & Levy, 2005). The first 7 questions are answered using a Likert scale (range 1 to 5). The result is the average of the entered responses. Higher values indicate higher amounts of children’s PA. The eighth question in this questionnaire is open-ended and pertains to the time children spend using screens. The study posed the following hypotheses: H1: There are differences in children’s PA and ST depending on the parental education level. H2: There are differences in children’s PA and ST depending on the fre- quency of parental participation in joint physical activities. H3: There are differences in children’s PA and ST depending on the fre- quency of grandparental participation in joint physical activities. The study included 231 parents who provided data for their children (51.9% girls (N=120) and 48.1% boys (N=111)), aged between 2 and 7 years (M=5.07±1.36). Depending on the statistical needs of the hypotheses, the children were as- signed to different categories. For the analysis of the first hypothesis, the sam- ple was divided based on parental education level. Of the participants, 64.9% 27 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 (N=150) had parents with tertiary education (university degree) and 35.1% (N=81) had parents with secondary education (high school degree). For the second hypothesis, children were divided based on the frequency of parental participation in joint physical activities. Parental activities with chil- dren were infrequent in 58.4% (N=135) and frequent in 41.6% (N=96) of cases. For the third hypothesis, children were divided based on the frequency of grandparental participation in physical activities. Grandparents’ activities with children were infrequent in 73.2% (N=169) and frequent in 26.8% (N=62) of cases. For statistical data processing, we used IBM SPSS Statistics 19.0. To exam- ine the data distribution, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was employed. Because the distribution of the results was non-normal, we used the Mann-Whitney U for group comparisons. Hypotheses were accepted at p<0.05. RESULTS Most respondents reside in Pannonian Croatia (41.6%, N=96), followed by the City of Zagreb (35.1%, N=81) and Northern Croatia (23.4%, N=54). The age range of the children participating in the study was from 2 to 7 years (M=5.07, ±1.36), with 70 (30.3%) children aged 2–4 years and 161 (69.7%) aged 5–7 years. The average PA level of the children, as assessed using the NPAQ, was 3.75 (range 1.29–5, ±0.66). The parents reported that children aged 5–7 years were slightly more physically active (M=3.77, ±0.67) than children aged 2–4 years (M=3.70, ±0.63). Children aged 2–4 years spent an average of 69.07 min/day in front of screens (range 0–210 min/day, ±44.46, N=70), while children aged 5–7 years spent 79.32 min/day (range 0–240 min/day, ±44.06, N=161). The average ST for all the children was 76.21 min/day, ±44.34. Parental involvement in joint physical activities with children had an aver- age score of M=3.24 (range 1–5, ±0.92), while the involvement of grandparents averaged M=2.72 (range 1–5, ±1.12). The results indicate no statistically significant difference in the children’s PA (Z=-0.075, p>0.941) based on parental education level (Table 1). The chil- dren of parents with tertiary education were no more physically active than the children of parents with secondary education (M=3.75±0.61, N=150 vs. M=3.74±0.75, N=81). However, a statistically significant difference was found in ST (Z=-3.83, p<0.000), with the children of parents with tertiary educa- tion spending less time in front of screens compared to those of parents with 28 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Ta bl e 1. D es cr ip tiv e St at is tic s an d M an n- W hi tn ey U T es t R es ul ts fo r Ph ys ic al A ct iv ity a nd S cr ee n Ti m e by P ar en ta l Ed uc at io n an d C oa ct iv ity w ith P ar en ts a nd G ra nd pa re nt s Va ri ab le s G ro up in g va ri ab le N M ea n SD M an n- W hi tn ey U Z p PA Pa re nt al ed uc at io n se co nd ar y 81 3. 74 0. 75 60 39 .0 0 -0 .0 75 0. 94 1 te rti ar y 15 0 3. 75 0. 61 ST Pa re nt al ed uc at io n se co nd ar y 81 91 .6 7 46 .5 4 42 68 .5 0 -3 .8 25 0. 00 0* te rti ar y 15 0 67 .8 7 40 .8 9 PA Pa re nt -c hi ld co ac tiv ity le ss fr eq ue nt ly 13 5 3. 71 0. 66 57 77 .5 0 -1 .4 08 0. 15 9 m or e fr eq ue nt ly 96 3. 81 0. 65 ST Pa re nt -c hi ld co ac tiv ity le ss fr eq ue nt ly 13 5 83 .9 3 43 .2 6 47 24 .0 0 -3 .6 00 0. 00 0* m or e fr eq ue nt ly 96 65 .3 5 43 .7 7 PA G ra nd pa re nt s- ch ild c oa ct iv ity le ss fr eq ue nt ly 16 9 3. 75 0. 66 51 92 .5 0 -0 .1 04 0, 91 7 m or e fr eq ue nt ly 62 3. 74 0. 66 ST G ra nd pa re nt s- ch ild c oa ct iv ity le ss fr eq ue nt ly 16 9 75 .6 6 43 .5 1 51 70 .5 0 -0 .1 56 0. 87 6 m or e fr eq ue nt ly 62 77 .7 3 46 .8 7 Le ge nd : N – n um be r o f p ar tic ip an ts ; S D – st an da rd d ev ia tio n; Z – st an da rd is ed v al ue fr om M an n- W hi tn ey U te st ; P A – P hy si ca l a ct iv ity ; S T – Sc re en ti m e (m in /d ay ); *p < 0 .0 5 29 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 secondary education (M=67.87±40.89, N=150 vs. M=91.67±46.54, N=81) (Table 1). Therefore, hypothesis 1 is partially supported. There was no statistically significant difference in the children’s PA (Z=- 1.408, p>0.159) based on the frequency of parental participation in joint physi- cal activities (Table 1). Children whose parents participated more frequently were no more physically active than those whose parents participated less fre- quently (M=3.81±0.65, N=96 vs. M=3.71±0.66, N=135). However, a statisti- cally significant difference was found in ST (Z=-3.600, p<0.000), (Table 1). Children whose parents participated more frequently in joint physical activi- ties spent less time in front of screens compared to those whose parents par- ticipated less frequently (M=65.35±43.77, N=96 vs. M=83.93±43.26, N=135). Therefore, hypothesis 2 is partially supported. There were no significant statistical differences in the children’s PA (Z=– 0.104, p>0.917) based on the frequency of their grandparents’ participa- tion in joint physical activities (Table 1). Children whose grandparents par- ticipated more frequently were equally active compared to those whose grand- parents participated less frequently (M=3.74±0.66, N=62 vs. M=3.75±0.66, N=169). Similarly, no significant difference was observed in ST (Z=-0.156, p>0.876), (Table 1). Children whose grandparents were more frequently in- volved spent a similar amount of time in front of screens compared to children whose grandparents participated less frequently (M=77.73±46.87, N=62 vs. M=75.66±43.51, N=169). Therefore, hypothesis 3 is not supported. DISCUSSION Based on parental self-reports using the NPAQ, the mean score was 3.75 (out of 5), with older children showing slightly higher levels of PA than young- er ones (3.77 vs 3.70). Given the high NPAQ scores obtained, we conclude that the children who participated in the study tend to be physically active. However, numerous studies show that preschool children are not sufficiently physically active (Matarma et al., 2017; Arts et al., 2023). Self-assessment using questionnaires is the most common method of assessing PA (Sallis & Saelens, 2000), with the possibility of bias (Warnecke, 1997; Ghanamah, 2025; Jin et al., 2025). ST is most commonly measured by the parents’ self-reports of the amount of time their child spends on screens throughout a typical day (Barr et al., 2020). However, this method is imprecise (Barr et al., 2020). Thus, careful interpretation of the results is recommended. According to the World Health Organisation (2019), children between the ages of 2 and 4 should use 30 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 screens for no more than 60 min/day. Our results show that children aged 2-4 years exceed the recommendations, using screens for an average of 69.07 min/ day (range 0-210 min/day). Daily screen exposure for children aged 5 and older should not exceed 120 min/day (Tremblay et al., 2014). The average ST in this age group in our study is 79.32 min/day (range 0-240 min/day), indicating that the recommendations are generally being followed. It is concerning that some preschool children use screens for up to 240 min/day. Previous research in Croatia (Rogović, Šalaj & Puharić, 2022) and worldwide (Määttä et al., 2017; Ma, Li & Chen, 2022; Carballo‐Fazanes, Díaz‐Pereira, Fernández‐Villarino, Abelairas‐Gómez & Rey, 2023) show that the average ST regularly exceeds the recommended values. Extended interaction with digital screens can have detrimental implications for children’s development (Lin, Cherng, Chen, Chen & Yang, 2015) and social competencies (Ma et al., 2022). Despite the necessity of monitoring children’s screen usage (Ma et al., 2022), findings from a study in Australia revealed that 50% of young and preschool children use screens without supervision (Rhodes, 2017). Our study does not show a difference in the children’s PA with respect to pa- rental education, which is confirmed by some other studies (Kippe & Lagestad, 2018). It is possible that the lack of a significant correlation between the chil- dren’s PA and parental education is influenced by the relatively homogeneous sample of parents in terms of socioeconomic status and access to PA opportuni- ties or similar early care and education programmes (similar PA and outdoor play standards), which limits variation based on education level. Furthermore, parents across different educational levels may have similar perceptions of their child’s activity. It is important to recognise that when self-assessing PA, inaccurate percep- tion (overestimation or underestimation) of the activities performed is possible (Medina, Jáuregui, Hernández, Shamah, & Barquera, 2021). Warnecke (1997) found that individuals exaggerate their participation in PA due to social accept- ance. Recent findings indicate that parents are not sufficiently familiar with the established guidelines for recommended ST and PA for children (Csima, Podráczky, Keresztes, Soós, & Fináncz, 2024), potentially contributing to mis- perceptions and assessments related to these behaviours. Our analysis did not consider whether the relationship between parental education and outcomes is moderated by the gender of the child and/or par- ents. Thus, Ré et al. (2025) found that sons of highly educated mothers were less physically active, since they played with a ball less in their free time. In this study, playing with a ball proved to be an important item for meeting the recommendations regarding children’s PA. Furthermore, Güven, Dönmez, 31 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 İncedere and Taşar (2025) found that higher parental health literacy was greater among highly educated parents and it was associated with the more frequent participation of children in sports activities. Other studies have also found that children of highly educated parents are more physically active (Dawson-Hahn, Fesinmeyer & Mendoza, 2015; Lampinen et al., 2017; Muñoz-Galiano, Connor, Gómez-Ruano & Torres-Luque, 2020; Vorlíček et al., 2025). Conversely, Vale et al. (2014) found that more than half of the children of highly educated par- ents do not meet the recommendations for PA. Some parents believe that it is important to engage in joint activities, but they do not prioritise PA over some sedentary activities, including joint ST (Thompson et al., 2010). Parents cite various factors, such as a fast-paced lifestyle, adverse weather conditions and unfavourable socioeconomic status, among others (Thompson et al., 2010). We believe that highly educated parents prioritise intellectual activities over physi- cal ones and emphasise their children’s academic success. It is also possible that these children participate in additional activities during their free time that further promote academic success. Thus, academic and sports activities replace children’s free play (Bento & Dias, 2017). However, numerous other factors can also influence children’s PA, such as parental attitudes (Tandon, Saelens & Copeland, 2017), parental stress (Maher et al., 2017), adequate family function- ing (Loprinzi, 2015), etc. Our study found that the children of highly educated parents spend less time in front of screens, which aligns with the findings from several previ- ous research projects (Carson & Janssen, 2012; Lin et al., 2015; Määttä et al., 2017; Burnett et al., 2023). More educated parents tend to be more effective in organising their children’s leisure time, ensuring a balance between PA and SB (Muñoz-Galiano et al., 2020). In addition, during sedentary time, various quiet activities can be conducted without the use of media, such as reading, drawing, driving, dining, etc. (Aubert et al., 2022; Chaput et al., 2020). The study by Lampinen et al. (2017) identified a gender-specific trend, where lower parental education was associated with more sedentary behaviour from screen use in boys only. Parents with lower educational attainment may see screen use in early childhood as beneficial for future educational and career success (Määttä et al., 2017). However, LeBlanc et al. (2015) found that, overall, chil- dren whose fathers have more than a high school education spend more time in sedentary activities and using screens. When analysed by gender, this pattern is only evident among daughters, not sons (LeBlanc et al., 2015). Our results show no statistically significant difference in the children’s PA concerning the frequency of parental participation in joint PA (coactivity), such as walking together, playing, going to the park, etc. Several explanations are 32 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 possible for these results. There is a possible discrepancy between the parents’ perceptions and the children’s actual behaviour, because the study was conduct- ed using questionnaires, not accelerometers. There is also a possible discrep- ancy between the parents’ perception of joint activity and their actual coactivity with children. It is possible that they overestimate (accidentally or intention- ally) the amount of time they spend in coactivity with children. Such uncer- tainties could be avoided in future research by using accelerometry for both parents and children. We emphasise that the type of PA that parents engage in with their children may vary, so not all shared PA is high-intensity. It is possible that parents, due to a lack of knowledge, do not take into account low-intensity PA achieved during the day when assessing their children’s PA. Low-intensity PA is the primary activity level of preschool children, especially girls (Berglind & Tynelius, 2018). We can also ask the following question: Are parents physi- cally active enough? Research indicates that many parents fall short and do not meet the PA recommendations (Guthold, Stevens, Riley & Bull, 2018; WHO, 2020; Bueno et al., 2025). This raises the question of whether parents who may not be active enough themselves can accurately assess physical coactiv- ity with their children. It is possible that some parents have a more sedentary lifestyle, which is then reflected in the adoption of similar habits in their chil- dren (developing habits related to SB and physical inactivity). The PA levels and sedentary patterns of children are considerably affected by the example set by their parents (Keyes & Willson, 2021), which has an important influence on their behaviour (Maia, Braz, Fernandes, Sarmento &Machado-Rodrigues, 2025; Paudel et al., 2025). In addition, some children naturally prefer sedentary activities (Andersen et al., 2017). Therefore, it is possible that parents with calmer children encourage them to be more active through joint PA. One pos- sible reason is that children who engage in PA with their parents are more tired and spend less time playing active games in their free time, unlike those who participate in such activities with their parents less often. There is evidence sug- gesting that children who spend more time outside are more physically active (Sterdt et al., 2014; Hinkley et al., 2018). Parents can take their children to the park, but without other children to play with, the child may not engage in ac- tive play. Matarma et al. (2017) found that maternal-child coactivity increases the children’s PA levels. Other authors have found that parent-child coactiv- ity influences the likelihood of meeting the recommendations for children’s PA (Pyper, Harrington & Manson, 2016; Uijtdewilligen et al., 2017; Hnatiuk, Dwyer, George & Bennie, 2020) and improves communication (Thompson et al., 2010). Bingham et al. (2016) found a positive correlation between the amount of time children spend playing with their parents and their overall 33 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 PA levels. Parent-child coactivity is more significant at a younger age than in the period closer to adolescence (Rhodes et al., 2015). Various neighbour- hood factors, including parks (Greer, Castrogivanni & Marcello, 2017; Hunter, Leatherdale, Spence & Carson, 2022), and parental stress (Maher et al., 2017) are crucial in coactivity. Thompson et al. (2010) found that the majority of parents believe that joint family PA is important, but despite this, they rarely en- gage in it. Of all forms of parental behaviour in terms of supporting children’s involvement in PA, coactivity is the rarest (as much as 80.5% of parents do not participate in joint PA with their children), (Pyper et al., 2016) and 58.4% in our study. Interventions that encourage parent-child coactivity are justified and very useful (Rhodes & Lim, 2018; Grant et al., 2020). While Rhodes & Lim (2018) consider such interventions to be unsuccessful, a study conducted by Ha, He, Lubans, Chan and Ng (2022) found that coactivity between children and parents increased after an online intervention, namely parent education on so-called physical literacy. Our research indicates that children with parents who often participate in co- activities tend to spend less time on screens compared to those whose parents are less involved in such activities. Although joint ST can promote positive family relationships, it is necessary to replace this time with some joint family activities that are important for the children’s health (Pyper et al., 2016). There was no identified difference in the children’s PA or screen usage as- sociated with the co-activities of grandparents and grandchildren in this study. Parental care for preschool children differs from that of grandparents and is su- perior in developing fundamental motor skills (Hu et al., 2023). Grandparents often have limited participation in PA with their grandchildren due to age, ill- ness and/or injury, finances and the availability of playgrounds in the neigh- bourhood (Budden et al., 2024), which contributes to screen use (Jongenelis et al., 2024) increased sedentary activities and reduced moderate PA (Lu, Shen, Huang & Corpeleijn, 2022). Support, the availability of parks/playgrounds in the neighbourhood and play equipment positively influence the PA of grand- children (Jongenelis et al., 2024). We believe that parents and the extended family are key contributors to shaping healthy habits, including PA and ST. However, in our study, physical coactivity between parents/grandparents and children did not prove to be a sig- nificant factor influencing children’s PA. To gain a better understanding of this issue, future research should examine how parents/grandparents and children engage in physical coactivity, examining the type of activity or play, the loca- tion (indoors or outdoors), duration, frequency and other relevant factors. 34 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 PA and ST result from complex interactions of numerous socio-ecological factors. Parental influence is multifactorial (support, encouragement, motivation, parental PA, etc.), (Rhodes et al., 2015; Pyper et al., 2016; Garriguet, Bushnik & Colley, 2017; Arts et al., 2023) and is more dominant than the influence of grand- parents (Hu et al., 2023). Opportunities for PA at home (Dowda et al., 2011), attending kindergarten (Pate, Pfeiffer, Trost, Ziegler & Dowda, 2004; Dowda et al., 2011; Matarma et al., 2017; Kippe & Lagestad, 2018), siblings (Matarma et al., 2017; Schmutz et al., 2017), place of residence, the proximity and availabil- ity of parks/playgrounds, neighbourhood safety, play equipment (Terrón-Pérez, Molina-García, Martínez-Bello & Queralt, 2021; Huang, Luo & Chen, 2022; Lu et al., 2022), playground size, and the availability of sports equipment (Arts et al., 2023) are also some factors that contribute to children being more physically ac- tive. Attending kindergarten can affect children’s PA (Sigmundová et al., 2016; Matarma et al., 2017; Kippe & Lagestad, 2018) more than family factors (Huang et al., 2022). Individual characteristics of the child, such as gender, often deter- mine higher levels of PA (Pate et al., 2004; Schmutz et al., 2017; Sterdt et al., 2014), temperament (Schmutz et al., 2017), the child’s inclination towards PA (Sterdt et al., 2014), the child’s enjoyment of PA (Dowda et al., 2011), motor competencies (Robinson et al., 2015; Carballo‐Fazanes et al., 2023), etc. SB includes various activities that can have a complex relationship with health (Aubert et al., 2022). While reading and calm activities are advanta- geous for cognitive growth, it is not known that ST has health or developmental benefits for young children (Downing, Hnatiuk & Hesketh, 2015). Despite this, SB related to screen use increases at the expense of PA, even among preschool children (Dawson-Hahn et al., 2015). Consequently, children who devote more time to screen use are less likely to engage in PA (Dawson-Hahn et al., 2015; del Pozo-Cruz et al., 2019), which may negatively affect their health. Setting rules, monitoring time, using screens with the child, having meals without screens and encouraging the child to engage in activities can influence ST (Xu, Wen & Rissel, 2015). Most parents believe that the recommendations regarding children’s PA and ST are difficult to meet (Hamilton, Hatzis, Kavanagh & White, 2015), while some parents are not informed about the guidelines (Csima et al., 2024). Due to globalisation and technological development, children are deprived of free play (Bento & Dias, 2017). The study by Tandon et al. (2017) found that some parents associate outdoor play in colder conditions with a risk of illness, and a portion of them prefer their children not to play outside at all. Consequently, empowering parents to manage their children’s screen use and foster outdoor PA is essential. 35 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 Some countries implement various educational programmes to train edu- cators (Tran et al., 2025) and parents (Ha et al., 2022; Paudel et al., 2025) in leading a healthy lifestyle, as well as interventions that aim to promote PA in children while reducing SB and ST (Yoong et al., 2020). Some interventions are aimed at the entire family (Phipps et al., 2024). Some strategies include educa- tional interventions for parents on the importance of coactivity between parents and children (Ha et al., 2022), as well as other family members who participate in childcare, then developing and strengthening parental awareness of exercise (Song & Ge, 2025), empowering the parents in forming correct views on health awareness and related behaviours (Vrijkotte, Varkevisser, van Schalkwijk & Hartman, 2020). According to Song & Ge (2025), greater parental awareness of PA correlates with greater PA in children. According to Loprinzi (2015), understanding the underlying factors that impact these behaviours is a neces- sary foundation for creating, applying and evaluating interventions aimed at encouraging PA and limiting sedentary habits in children. Parental awareness of their role in shaping their children’s PA is crucial for the creation of effec- tive intervention strategies (Song & Ge, 2025). Based on this, we present some basic suggestions regarding PA and SB for preschool children. The basic recommendations regarding PA for preschool children are as follows: children aged 1-2 years: a minimum of 180 min of total daily PA; 3-4 years: at least 180 minutes daily as well, with a minimum of 60 min at mod- erate to vigorous intensity (Jurakić & Pedešić, 2019; WHO, 2019); children aged 5-17 years: an average of 60 min/day of moderate to vigorous PA (Jurakić & Pedešić, 2019; WHO, 2020). Parents also need to be informed about the rea- sons why children should play outside (Bento & Dias, 2017). The basic recommendations for ST are as follows: children < 2 years: no ST is recommended; children 2-4 years: 60 min/day (Jurakić & Pedešić, 2019; WHO, 2019); children 5 years and older: 120 min/day (Jurakić & Pedešić, 2019). We also believe that it is necessary to implement educational interventions aimed at parents, families and kindergarten teachers, providing information on recommendations for children’s PA, SB and ST; increase awareness about the negative consequences of physical inactivity and prolonged ST in childhood; increase health literacy; promote coactivity between parents and children and other family members, and free unstructured outdoor play; empower fami- lies/teachers to foster physically active lifestyles and stimulate active play in children. We believe that additional research should be conducted to more precisely determine the various socio-ecological factors (which may also be culturally 36 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 conditioned) that influence PA, SB and ST in children in Croatia, which would more precisely target the goals of strategic measures. Conducting longitudinal studies covering the entire territory of Croatia would allow monitoring changes in children’s PA and SB over time, as well as the influence of parents, extended family members and kindergarten teach- ers. Such designs would allow the identification of cause-and-effect relation- ships and developmental patterns that cannot be captured by cross-sectional approaches. Furthermore, future research should consider using mixed-method designs, combining objective measurements of PA and SB (e.g., accelerometry) with qualitative methods such as interviews or observations. This would con- tribute to a better understanding of the multifaceted socio-ecological influences on children’s behaviour. By integrating different methodological approaches and extending the follow-up period, future studies could better detect dynamic changes across developmental stages and provide stronger evidence for devel- oping and strategically planning interventions. Encouraging children to move and reduce ST requires a holistic approach (Chen et al., 2022) and teamwork (Bento & Dias, 2017). A combination of strat- egies targeting the individual, family, kindergarten and policy levels is needed to improve the effectiveness of preventive measures. In addition, for more precise and objective results, we recommend measur- ing PA using more reliable methods in future research (Sterdt et al., 2014), such as accelerometry or smartwatches. We also recommend measuring PA simulta- neously in both children and parents to obtain more accurate results. LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH This study (N = 231) was conducted using a questionnaire, which relied on parental self-reporting. This methodology could introduce biases or recall errors. The use of accelerometry (or smartwatches) would have contributed to greater objectivity in the measurement of children’s PA and SB. Furthermore, the study included participants from only three of the four regions of Croatia. Limited geographical coverage, as well as potential cultural, socioeconomic and other regional differences, may have influenced the children’s PA and SB. Consequently, the generalizability of the findings is restricted. The children’s age range in the study (2 to 7 years) was relatively wide. Although this range primarily includes preschool-aged children, developmental differences within this group could affect PA patterns. Future research should aim to increase the 37 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 sample size and extend data collection to all the Croatian regions to enable the more reliable comparisons of results. It would also be beneficial to examine in greater detail the impact of parental education, grandparental involvement and family habits on children’s PA and SB. Moreover, future questionnaires should be expanded to assess other relevant socio-ecological factors that may influ- ence children’s PA, SB and ST, such as the parents’ socioeconomic status, area and region of residence, the parents’ health literacy, family routines, type of parent-child coactivity, parental attitudes, environmental influences, environ- mental characteristics, seasonal variations, climatic conditions, children’s gen- der, a narrower developmental age range, kindergarten impact, etc. For greater generalizability and relevance, it is suggested that future studies incorporate participants from varied age groups, demographics and cultural environments. CONCLUSIONS PA and the time children spend using screens are influenced by multifacto- rial factors. Our research shows that ST is lower in the children of more edu- cated parents and parents who spend more time in joint physical activities with their children. It is important to inform parents and family members about rec- ommendations related to PA and ST and to encourage and empower them to proactively manage their children’s free time in order to reduce SB and support healthier development. Parents should define clear rules and boundaries and limit ST. During ST, it is recommended to watch educational content, prefer- ably together with children, and play games less. Parents, grandparents and educators should encourage children to play more actively, especially outdoors. The local community and society in general also play a major role (the acces- sibility of parks, safety in the neighbourhood, etc.). Various campaigns can also be implemented to educate and raise awareness about the importance of chil- dren’s movement and the harmfulness of SB and physically inactive behaviour in childhood. 38 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 REFERENCES Andersen, E., Borch-Jenssen, J., Øvreås, S., Ellingsen, H., Jørgensen, K. A., & Moser, T. (2017). Objectively measured physical activity level and sedentary be- havior in Norwegian children during a week in preschool. Preventive medicine re- ports, 7, 130-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2017.06.003 Arts, J., Drotos, E., Singh, A. S., Chinapaw, M. J., Altenburg, T. M., & Gubbels, J. S. (2023). Correlates of physical activity in 0-to 5-year-olds: a systematic umbrella review and consultation of international researchers. Sports Medicine, 53(1), 215- 240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-022-01761-5 Aubert, S., Barnes, J. D., Demchenko, I., Hawthorne, M., Abdeta, C., Abi Nader, P., ... & Tremblay, M. S. (2022). Global Matrix 4.0 Physical Activity Report Card grades for children and adolescents: Results and analyses from 57 countries. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 19(11), 700-728. https://doi.org/10.1123/ jpah.2022-0456 Balkó, S., Balkó, I., Valter, L., & Jelínek, M. (2017). Influence of physical activities on the posture in 10-11 year old schoolchildren. Journal of physical education and sport, 17 (Supplement 1)16, 101-106. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2017.s1016 Barr, R., Kirkorian, H., Radesky, J., Coyne, S., Nichols, D., Blanchfield, O., ... & Fitzpatrick, C. (2020). Beyond screen time: a synergistic approach to a more com- prehensive assessment of family media exposure during early childhood. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 1283. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01283 Bentham, J., Di Cesare, M., Bllano, V. i Boddy, L. M. (2017). Worldwide trends in children‘s and adolescents‘ body mass index, underweight and obesity, in compari- son with adults, from 1975 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 2,416 population-based measurement studies with 128.9 million participants. The Lancet, 390(10113), 2627-2642. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32129-3 Bento, G., & Dias, G. (2017). The importance of outdoor play for young chil- dren‘s healthy development. Porto biomedical journal, 2(5), 157-160. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.pbj.2017.03.003 Berglind, D., & Tynelius, P. (2018). Objectively measured physical activity pat- terns, sedentary time and parent-reported screen-time across the day in four-year- old Swedish children. BMC Public Health, 18(69), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12889-017-4600-5 Bingham, D. D., Costa, S., Hinkley, T., Shire, K. A., Clemes, S. A., & Barber, S. E. (2016). Physical activity during the early years: a systematic review of corre- lates and determinants. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 51(3), 384-402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2016.04.022 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995). Developmental ecology through space and time: A fu- ture perspective. In P. Moen, G. H. Elder Jr. & K. Lüscher (Eds.), Examining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human development (pp. 619-647). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Budden, T., Coall, D. A., Jackson, B., Christian, H., Nathan, A., & Jongenelis, M. I. (2024). Barriers and enablers to promoting grandchildren’s physical activity and reducing screen time: a qualitative study with Australian grandparents. BMC Public Health, 24(1), 1670. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19178-2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2017.06.003 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-022-01761-5 https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2022-0456 https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2022-0456 https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2017.s1016 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01283 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32129-3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbj.2017.03.003 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbj.2017.03.003 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4600-5 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4600-5 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2016.04.022 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19178-2 39 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 Bueno, S. V., Skejø, S. D., Nielsen, R. O., Ryom, K., Kallestrup, P., Elsborg, P., ... & Jacobsen, J. S. (2025). Danish mothers of young children adhere less to internation- al physical activity guidelines compared with mothers of older children. Preventive Medicine Reports, 50, 102970. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2025.102970 Burnett, A. J., Ray, C., Lehto, R., Leppänen, M. H., Sajaniemi, N., Erkkola, M., & Roos, E. (2023). The role of parental congruence in pre‐school children‘s screen time, moderated by parental education. Acta Paediatrica, 112(7), 1504-1510. htt- ps://doi.org/10.1111/apa.16782 Carballo‐Fazanes, A., Díaz‐Pereira, M. P., Fernández‐Villarino, M. A., Abelairas‐ Gómez, C., & Rey, E. (2023). Physical activity in kindergarten, fundamental movement skills, and screen time in Spanish preschool children. Psychology in the Schools, 60(9), 3318-3328. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22925 Caroli, M., Malecka-Tendera, E., Epifani, S., Rollo, R., Sansolios, S., Matusik, P., & Mikkelsen, B. E. (2011). Physical activity and play in kindergarten age children. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 6(sup2), 47-53. https://doi.org/10.3109 /17477166.2011.613671 Carson, V., & Janssen, I. (2012). Associations between factors within the home set- ting and screen time among children aged 0–5 years: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 12, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-539 Chaput, J. P., Willumsen, J., Bull, F., Chou, R., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., … Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2020). 2020 WHO guidelines on physical activity and sed- entary behaviour for children and adolescents aged 5–17 years: summary of the evidence. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 17(141), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01037-z Chen, Z., Chi, G., Wang, L., Chen, S., Yan, J., & Li, S. (2022). The combinations of physical activity, screen time, and sleep, and their associations with self-reported physical fitness in children and adolescents. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(10), 5783. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105783 Chen, L., Liu, Q., Xu, F., Wang, F., Luo, S., An, X., ... & Liang, X. (2024). Effect of physical activity on anxiety, depression and obesity index in children and adoles- cents with obesity: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 354, 275 - 285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.02.092 Crawford, D., Cleland, V., Timperio, A., Salmon, J., Andrianopoulos, N., Roberts, R., … & Ball, K. (2010). The longitudinal influence of home and neighbourhood environments on children‘s body mass index and physical activity over 5 years: the CLAN study. International Journal of Obesity, 34(7), 1177-1187. https://doi. org/10.1038/ijo.2010.57 Csima, M., Podráczky, J., Keresztes, V., Soós, E. & Fináncz, J. (2024). The Role of Parental Health Literacy in Establishing Health-Promoting Habits in Early Childhood. Children, 11(5), 576. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11050576 Dankiw, K. A., Tsiros, M. D., Baldock, K. L., & Kumar, S. (2020). The impacts of unstructured nature play on health in early childhood development: A systematic review. Plos one, 15(2), e0229006. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229006 Dawson-Hahn, E. E., Fesinmeyer, M. D., & Mendoza, J. A. (2015). Correlates of physical activity in Latino preschool children attending Head Start. Pediatric Exercise Science, 27(3), 372-379. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2014-0144 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2025.102970 https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.16782 https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.16782 https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22925 https://doi.org/10.3109/17477166.2011.613671 https://doi.org/10.3109/17477166.2011.613671 https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-539 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01037-z http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19105783 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.02.092 https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2010.57 https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2010.57 https://doi.org/10.3390/children11050576 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229006 https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2014-0144 40 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Day, J. (2024). The intensification of parenting and generational fracturing of sponta- neous physical activity from childhood play in the United Kingdom. Sociology of Health & Illness, 46(1), 153-171. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.13701 del Pozo-Cruz, B., Perales, F., Parker, P., Lonsdale, C., Noetel, M., Hesketh, K. D., & Sanders, T. (2019). Joint physical-activity/screen-time trajectories dur- ing early childhood: socio-demographic predictors and consequences on health- related quality-of-life and socio-emotional outcomes. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 16, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12966-019-0816-3 Dowda, M., Pfeiffer, K. A., Brown, W. H., Mitchell, J. A., Byun, W., & Pate, R. R. (2011). Parental and environmental correlates of physical activity of children attending preschool. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 165(10), 939- 944. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.84 Downing, K. L., Hnatiuk, J., & Hesketh, K. D. (2015). Prevalence of sedentary be- havior in children under 2 years: a systematic review. Preventive medicine, 78, 105- 114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.07.019 Garriguet, D., Bushnik, T., & Colley, R. (2017). Parent-child association in physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Statistics Canada 28(6), 3-11. Ghanamah, R. (2025). The Impact of Physical Activity and Screen Time on Motor Creativity in Kindergarteners. Children, 12(2), 116. https://doi.org/10.3390/ children12020116 Grant, S. J., Beauchamp, M. R., Blanchard, C. M., Carson, V., Gardner, B., Warburton, D. E., & Rhodes, R. E. (2020). Parents and children active together: a randomized trial protocol examining motivational, regulatory, and habitual inter- vention approaches. BMC Public Health, 20(1436), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12889-020-09465-z Greer, A. E., Castrogivanni, B., & Marcello, R. (2017). Park use and physical activity among mostly low-to-middle income, minority parents and their children. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 14(2), 83-87. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2016-0310 Griffith, S. F. (2023). Parent beliefs and child media use: Stress and digital skills as moderators. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 86, 101535.https://doi. org/10.1016/j.appdev.2023.101535 Guthold, R., Stevens, G. A., Riley, L. M., & Bull, F. C. (2018). Worldwide trends in insufficient physical activity from 2001 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 358 popula- tion-based surveys with 1.9 million participants. The lancet global health, 6(10), e1077-e1086. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30357-7 Güven, A. G., Dönmez, Y. N., İncedere, F., & Taşar, M. A. (2025). Assessing the impact of parents’ digital and health literacy on children’s participation in sport. Health Promotion International, 40(2), daaf038. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/ daaf038 Ha, A. S., He, Q., Lubans, D. R., Chan, C. H., & Ng, J. Y. (2022). Parent-focused on- line intervention to promote parents’ physical literacy and support children’s physi- cal activity: results from a quasi-experimental trial. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1330. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13739-z Hamilton, K., Hatzis, D., Kavanagh, D. J., & White, K. M. (2015). Exploring par- ents’ beliefs about their young child’s physical activity and screen time behaviours. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.13701 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0816-3 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0816-3 https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.84 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.07.019 https://doi.org/10.3390/children12020116 https://doi.org/10.3390/children12020116 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09465-z https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09465-z https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2016-0310 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2023.101535 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2023.101535 https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30357-7 https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daaf038 https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daaf038 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13739-z 41 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 2638-2652. https://psycnet.apa.org/ doi/10.1007/s10826-014-0066-6 Hawlader, M. D. H., Mozid, N. E., Sharmin, S., Monju, I. H., Ahmed, S. B., Sarker, W., ... & Dalal, K. (2023). The art of forming habits: applying habit theory in changing physical activity behaviour. Journal of Public Health, 31(12), 2045-2057. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-022-01766-4 Hinkley, T., Brown, H., Carson, V., & Teychenne, M. (2018). Cross sectional as- sociations of screen time and outdoor play with social skills in preschool children. PloS one, 13(4), e0193700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193700 Hnatiuk, J. A., Dwyer, G., George, E. S., & Bennie, A. (2020). Co-participation in physical activity: perspectives from Australian parents of pre-schoolers. Health Promotion International, 35(6), 1474-1483. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daaa022 Holt, N. L., Neely, K. C., Spence, J. C., Carson, V., Pynn, S. R., Boyd, K. A., ... & Robinson, Z. (2016). An intergenerational study of perceptions of changes in active free play among families from rural areas of Western Canada. BMC Public Health, 16, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3490-2 Hu, J., Zhang, S., Ye, W., Zhu, Y., Zhou, H., Lu, L., ... & Korivi, M. (2023). Influence of different caregiving styles on fundamental movement skills among children. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1232551.https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpubh.2023.1232551 Huang, W., Luo, J., & Chen, Y. (2022). Effects of kindergarten, family environment, and physical activity on children‘s physical fitness. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 904903. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.904903 Hunter, S., Leatherdale, S. T., Spence, J. C., & Carson, V. (2022). Perceived rel- evance of neighborhood features for encouraging preschoolers’ active play, parents’ active recreation, and parent–child coactivity. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 54(3), 249. https://psyc- net.apa.org/doi/10.1037/cbs0000304 Husu, P., Tokola, K., Vähä-Ypyä, H., Sievänen, H., Kokko, S., Villberg, J., & Vasankari, T. (2024). Physical activity has decreased in Finnish children and adolescents from 2016 to 2022. BMC Public Health, 24(1), 1343. http://dx.doi. org/10.1186/s12889-024-18854-7 Janz, K. F., Broffitt, B. & Levy, S. M. (2005). Validation evidence for the Netherlands physical activity questionnaire for young children: the Iowa bone development study. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76(3), 363-369. https://doi.org/1 0.1080/02701367.2005.10599308 Jin, H., Zhou, H., & Chen, K. (2025). Analysis of risk factors for the development of obesity in preschool children: a logistic model analysis. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 13, 1497962. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fped.2025.1497962 Jones, R. A., Hinkley, T., Okely, A. D., & Salmon, J. (2013). Tracking physical activ- ity and sedentary behavior in childhood: a systematic review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 44(6), 651-658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2013.03.001 Jongenelis, M. I., Budden, T., Jackson, B., Christian, H., Nathan, A., Coall, D., & Glassenbury, E. (2024). Australian children’s physical activity and screen time while in grandparental care. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 100146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anzjph.2024.100146 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10826-014-0066-6 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10826-014-0066-6 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-022-01766-4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193700 https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daaa022 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3490-2 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1232551 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1232551 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.904903 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/cbs0000304 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/cbs0000304 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18854-7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18854-7 https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2005.10599308 https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2005.10599308 http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fped.2025.1497962 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2013.03.001 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anzjph.2024.100146 42 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Jurakić, D., & Pedišić, Ž. (2019). Hrvatske 24-satne preporuke za tjelesnu aktivnost, sedentarno ponašanje i spavanje: prijedlog utemeljen na sustavnom pregledu lit- erature. [Croatian 24-Hour Guidelines for Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviour, and Sleep: A Proposal Based on a Systematic Review of Literature.] Medicus, 28(2 Tjelesna aktivnost), 143-153. Keyes, B. L., & Wilson, K. S. (2021). Influence of parental physical activity and sed- entary behavior on young children: Considering time together. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 92(3), 311-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2020. 1727405 Kippe, K. O., & Lagestad, P. A. (2018). Kindergarten: Producer or reducer of in- equality regarding physical activity levels of preschool children. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 361. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00361 Lampinen, E. K., Eloranta, A. M., Haapala, E. A., Lindi, V., Väistö, J., Lintu, N., ... & Lakka, T. A. (2017). Physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and socioeconomic status among Finnish girls and boys aged 6–8 years. European Journal of Sport Science, 17(4), 462-472. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2017.1294619 Lee, E. Y., Shih, A. C., & Tremblay, M. S. (2024). Exploring the world of active play: A comprehensive review of global surveillance and monitoring of active play based on the global matrix data. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 22(3), 254-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesf.2024.03.008 Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., & Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 51(1), e70020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 LeBlanc, A. G., Broyles, S. T., Chaput, J. P., Leduc, G., Boyer, C., Borghese, M. M., & Tremblay, M. S. (2015). Correlates of objectively measured sedentary time and self-reported screen time in Canadian children. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 12, 1-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/ s12966-015-0197-1 Lev, Y. B., & Elias, N. (2020). Digital parenting: Media uses in parenting routines dur- ing the first two years of life. Studies in Media and Communication, 8(2), 41-48. https://doi.org/10.11114/smc.v8i2.5050 Liang, Y., Jin, Q., Miao, J., Ni, X., Qian, X., Xiong, Y., ... & Xue, H. (2024). Association between screen time and physical activity on mental health among preschoolers: a cross-sectional study from Southwest China. BMC Public Health, 24(1), 261. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-17722-8 Lin, L. Y., Cherng, R. J., Chen, Y. J., Chen, Y. J., & Yang, H. M. (2015). Effects of television exposure on developmental skills among young children. Infant Behavior and Development, 38, 20-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.12.005 Lopes, V. P., Rodrigues, L. P., Maia, J. A. & Malina, R. M. (2011). Motor coordination as predictor of physical activity in childhood. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 21(5), 663-669. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01027.x Loprinzi, P. D. (2015). Association of family functioning on youth physical activity and sedentary behavior. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 12(5), 642-648. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2014-0031 Lu, C., Shen, T., Huang, G., & Corpeleijn, E. (2022). Environmental correlates of sedentary behaviors and physical activity in Chinese preschool children: a http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2020.1727405 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2020.1727405 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00361 https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2017.1294619 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesf.2024.03.008 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12966-015-0197-1 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12966-015-0197-1 https://doi.org/10.11114/smc.v8i2.5050 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-17722-8 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.12.005 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01027.x http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2014-0031 43 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 cross-sectional study. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 11(5), 620-629. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2020.02.010 Ma, S., Li, J., & Chen, E. E. (2022). Does screen media hurt young children’s social development? Longitudinal associations between parental engagement, children’s screen time, and their social competence. Early Education and Development, 35(1), 10-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2022.2151401 Määttä, S., Kaukonen, R., Vepsäläinen, H., Lehto, E., Ylönen, A., Ray, C., ... & Roos, E. (2017). The mediating role of the home environment in relation to paren- tal educational level and preschool children’s screen time: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 17, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4694-9 Maher, J. P., Ra, C., O‘Connor, S. G., Belcher, B. R., Leventhal, A., Margolin, G., & Dunton, G. F. (2017). Associations between maternal mental health and well-being and physical activity and sedentary behavior in children. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 38(6), 385-394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ DBP.0000000000000459 Maia, C., Braz, D., Fernandes, H. M., Sarmento, H., & Machado-Rodrigues, A. M. (2025). The Impact of Parental Behaviors on Children’s Lifestyle, Dietary Habits, Screen Time, Sleep Patterns, Mental Health, and BMI: A Scoping Review. Children, 12(2), 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/children12020203 Matarma, T., Tammelin, T., Kulmala, J., Koski, P., Hurme, S., & Lagström, H. (2017). Factors associated with objectively measured physical activity and seden- tary time of 5–6-year-old children in the STEPS Study. Early Child Development and Care, 187(12), 1863-1873. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1193016 Medina, C., Jáuregui, A., Hernández, C., Shamah, T., & Barquera, S. (2021). Physical inactivity and sitting time prevalence and trends in Mexican adults. Results from three national surveys. Plos one, 16(7), e0253137. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0253137 Muñoz-Galiano, I. M., Connor, J. D., Gómez-Ruano, M. A., & Torres-Luque, G. (2020). Influence of the parental educational level on physical activity in school- children. Sustainability, 12(9), 3920. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093920 Pate, R. R., Pfeiffer, K. A., Trost, S. G., Ziegler, P., & Dowda, M. (2004). Physical activity among children attending preschools. Pediatrics, 114(5), 1258-1263. htt- ps://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2003-1088-L Paudel, S., Marshall, S., Veitch, J., Paudel, C., & Hesketh, K. D. (2025). Migrant parents‘ perceptions of the benefits, barriers, and facilitators of young children‘s physical activity and sedentary behavior: A systematic review of qualitative studies. Obesity Reviews, e13889. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13889 Phipps, D., Green, W. T., Aho, R., Kettunen, E., Biddle, S., Hamilton, K., ... & Knittle, K. (2024). A Web-Based Physical Activity Promotion Intervention for Inactive Parent-Child Dyads: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial. JMIR Research Protocols, 13(1), e55960. http://dx.doi.org/10.2196/55960 Piercy, K. L., Troiano, R. P., Ballard, R. M., Carlson, S. A., Fulton, J. E., Galuska, D. A., ... & Olson, R. D. (2018). The physical activity guidelines for Americans. JAMA, 320(19), 2020-2028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.14854 Pišot, R. (2022). Physical inactivity–The human health’s greatest enemy. Slovenian Journal of Public Health, 61(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.2478/sjph-2022-0002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2020.02.010 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2020.02.010 https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2022.2151401 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4694-9 http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000459 http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000459 http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/children12020203 https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1193016 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253137 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253137 https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093920 https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2003-1088-L https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2003-1088-L https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13889 http://dx.doi.org/10.2196/55960 http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.14854 https://doi.org/10.2478/sjph-2022-0002 44 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Pyper, E., Harrington, D., & Manson, H. (2016). The impact of different types of parental support behaviours on child physical activity, healthy eating, and screen time: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 16, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12889-016-3245-0 Ré, A. H. N., Cattuzzo, M. T., Stodden, D., Santos, G. D., Tertuliano, A. L. O., Monteiro, C. B. D. M., ... & Okely, A. D. (2025). Physical development and so- ciocultural context influences on children’s physical activity. Revista Paulista de Pediatria, 43, e2024113. https://doi.org/10.1590/1984-0462/2025/43/2024113 Rhodes, A. (2017). Screen time and kids: What’s happening in our homes? The Royal Children‘s Hospital Melbourne. https://www.rchpoll.org.au/polls/ screen-time-whats-happening-in-our-homes/ Rhodes, R. E., & Lim, C. (2018). Promoting parent and child physical activity togeth- er: elicitation of potential intervention targets and preferences. Health Education & Behavior, 45(1), 112-123. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198117704266 Rhodes, R. E., Spence, J. C., Berry, T., Deshpande, S., Faulkner, G., Latimer- Cheung, A. E., ... & Tremblay, M. S. (2015). Predicting changes across 12 months in three types of parental support behaviors and mothers’ perceptions of child physi- cal activity. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 49(6), 853-864. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12160-015-9721-4 Robinson, L. E., Stodden, D. F., Barnett, L. M., Lopes, V. P., Logan, S. W., Rodrigues, L. P., & D‘Hondt, E. (2015). Motor Competence and its Effect on Positive Developmental Trajectories of Health. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 45(9), 1273–1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0351-6 Rogović, D., Šalaj, S., & Puharić, Z. (2022). Relationship between screen-time and motor skills in preschool children. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 22(4), 976-980. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2022.04124 Sallis, J. F., & Saelens, B. E. (2000). Assessment of physical activity by self-report: status, limitations, and future directions. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(sup2), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.11082780 Schmidt-Persson, J., Rasmussen, M. G. B., Sørensen, S. O., Mortensen, S. R., Olesen, L. G., Brage, S., ... & Grøntved, A. (2024). Screen media use and men- tal health of children and adolescents: a secondary analysis of a randomized clini- cal trial. JAMA Network Open, 7(7), e2419881-e2419881. https://doi.org/10.1001/ jamanetworkopen.2024.19881 Schmutz, E. A., Leeger-Aschmann, C. S., Radtke, T., Muff, S., Kakebeeke, T. H., Zysset, A. E., ... & Kriemler, S. (2017). Correlates of preschool children’s objec- tively measured physical activity and sedentary behavior: a cross-sectional analysis of the SPLASHY study. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-130857 Serbis, A., Giapros, V., Kotanidou, E. P., Galli-Tsinopoulou, A., & Siomou, E. (2021). Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents. World Journal of Diabetes, 12(4), 344. http://dx.doi.org/10.4239/ wjd.v12.i4.344 Sharkins, K. A., Newton, A. B., Albaiz, N. E. A., & Ernest, J. M. (2016). Preschool children’s exposure to media, technology, and screen time: Perspectives of caregiv- ers from three early childcare settings. Early Childhood Education Journal, 44, 437-444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-015-0732-3 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3245-0 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3245-0 https://doi.org/10.1590/1984-0462/2025/43/2024113 https://www.rchpoll.org.au/polls/screen-time-whats-happening-in-our-homes/ https://www.rchpoll.org.au/polls/screen-time-whats-happening-in-our-homes/ https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198117704266 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-015-9721-4 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-015-9721-4 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0351-6 https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2022.04124 https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.11082780 https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.19881 https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.19881 https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-130857 http://dx.doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v12.i4.344 http://dx.doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v12.i4.344 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-015-0732-3 45 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 Sigmundová, D., Sigmund, E., Badura, P., Vokáčová, J., Trhlíková, L., & Bucksch, J. (2016). Weekday-weekend patterns of physical activity and screen time in par- ents and their pre-schoolers. BMC Public Health, 16, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12889-016-3586-8 Sobchuk, K., Connolly, S., & Sheehan, D. (2019). Exploring the literature on the benefits of nature and outdoor play and the role of play leaders. The Journal of the Health and Physical Education Council of the Alberta Teachers Association, 50(1), 36-45. Song, C., & Ge, S. (2025). Enhancing physical activity levels in 9–11-year-old children of varied genders: strategies leveraging parental exercise consciousness. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1407090. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1407090 Sterdt, E., Liersch, S., & Walter, U. (2014). Correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents: A systematic review of reviews. Health Education Journal, 73(1), 72-89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0017896912469578 Tandon, P. S., Saelens, B. E., & Copeland, K. A. (2017). A comparison of parent and childcare provider‘s attitudes and perceptions about preschoolers‘ physical activity and outdoor time. Child: care, health and development, 43(5), 679-686. https://doi. org/10.1111/cch.12429 Temneanu, O. R., Trandafir, L. M., & Purcarea, M. R. (2016). Type 2 diabetes mel- litus in children and adolescents: a relatively new clinical problem within pediatric practice. Journal of Medicine and Life, 9(3), 235-239. Retrieved from https://pmc. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5154306/ Terrón-Pérez, M., Molina-García, J., Martínez-Bello, V. E., & Queralt, A. (2021). Relationship between the physical environment and physical activity levels in pre- school children: a systematic review. Current Environmental Health Reports, 8(2), 177-195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-021-00318-4 Thompson, J. L., Jago, R., Brockman, R., Cartwright, K., Page, A. S., & Fox, K. R. (2010). Physically active families–de‐bunking the myth? A qualitative study of family participation in physical activity. Child: Care, Health and Development, 36(2), 265-274. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01051.x Tran, G., Kerr, E., Kelly, B., Ryan, S. T., Norman, J., Hammersley, M., ... & Okely, A. (2025). Nutrition and physical activity practices in family day care: A cross‐sec- tional survey of Australian family day care educators. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 36(1), e913. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hpja.913 Tremblay, M. S., Gray, C. E., Akinroye, K., Harrington, D. M., Katzmarzyk, P. T., Lambert, … & Tomkinson, G. (2014). Physical activity of children: a global matrix of grades comparing 15 countries. Journal of physical activity and health, 11(s1), S113-S125. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2014-0177 Uijtdewilligen, L., Brown, H. E., Müller‐Riemenschneider, F., Lim, Y. W., Brage, S., & Van Sluijs, E. M. (2017). A systematic review of methods to measure family co‐participation in physical activity. Obesity Reviews, 18(12), 1454-1472. https:// doi.org/10.1111/obr.12589 Vale, S., Ricardo, N., Soares‐Miranda, L., Santos, R., Moreira, C., & Mota, J. (2014). Parental education and physical activity in pre‐school children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 40(3), 446-452. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12041 Vorlíček, M., Dygrýn, J., Janda, D., Voráčová, J., Duncan, S., Sigmund, E., & Sigmundová, D. (2025). Raising active children: how family and school shape https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3586-8 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3586-8 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1407090 https://doi.org/10.1177/0017896912469578 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12429 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12429 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5154306/ https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5154306/ https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-021-00318-4 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01051.x http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hpja.913 https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2014-0177 https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12589 https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12589 https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12041 46 Vesna BRUMNIĆ, Sanja ŠALAJ & Rado PIŠOT: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SCREEN TIME IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN ..., 23–46 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 16 • 2025 • 1 health-promoting physical activity—findings from the FAMIPASS study. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 7, 1530398. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1530398 Vrijkotte, T. G., Varkevisser, T. M., van Schalkwijk, D. B., & Hartman, M. A. (2020). Maternal underestimation of Child’s weight at pre-school age and weight development between age 5 and 12 years: the ABCD-study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(14), 5197. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph17145197 Warnecke, R. B., Johnson, T. P., Chávez, N., Sudman, S., O‘rourke, D. P., Lacey, L. i Horm, J. (1997). Improving question wording in surveys of culturally di- verse populations. Annals of Epidemiology, 7(5), 334-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S1047-2797(97)00030-6 World Health Organization (WHO) (2019). Guidelines on physical activity, seden- tary behaviour and sleep for children under 5 years of age: summary. https://apps. who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/325147/WHO-NMH-PND-2019.4-eng.pdf World Health Organization (WHO) (2020). The WHO Guidelines on physi- cal activity and sedentary behaviour. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/hand le/10665/336656/9789240015128-eng.pdf?sequence=1 Xu, H., Wen, L. M., & Rissel, C. (2015). Associations of parental influences with physical activity and screen time among young children: a systematic review. Journal of Obesity, 2015(1), 546925. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/546925 Yoong, S. L., Lum, M., Jones, J., Kerr, E., Falkiner, M., Delaney, T., ... & Grady, A. (2020). A systematic review of interventions to improve the dietary intake, physical activity and weight status of children attending family day care ser- vices. Public Health Nutrition, 23(12), 2211-2220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ S1368980019005275 Zeng, N., Ayyub, M., Sun, H., Wen, X., Xiang, P., & Gao, Z. (2017). Effects of physical activity on motor skills and cognitive development in early childhood: a systematic review. BioMed research international, 2017(1), 2760716. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2025.1530398 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145197 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145197 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(97)00030-6 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1047-2797(97)00030-6 https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/325147/WHO-NMH-PND-2019.4-eng.pdf https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/325147/WHO-NMH-PND-2019.4-eng.pdf https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/336656/9789240015128-eng.pdf?sequence=1 https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/336656/9789240015128-eng.pdf?sequence=1 https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/546925 http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1368980019005275 http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1368980019005275 _Hlk199018774 _heading=h.r98mwvimp51m _heading=h.c5xxoosmfb0 _heading=h.ra86sy5uuqai _heading=h.8hg10f48zyt5 _heading=h.pqcczyy4e2pg _heading=h.4m30s8od8tub _heading=h.pg55g25d2nd _heading=h.a8srg11uwxxg _heading=h.4i4blvd56uvj _heading=h.req9hpvv0x60 _Hlk201317441 _Hlk60736358 _Hlk62755260 _Hlk62755317 _Hlk62755341 _Hlk175663888 _Hlk203037924 _Hlk207193304