55 Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis Studia Naturae, 3: 55–69, 2018, ISSN 2543-8832 DOI: 10.24917/25438832.3.4 Iwona Konieczna1*, Grzegorz Rut1, Angelika Kliszcz2 1Institute of Biology, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Podchorążych 2 St. 30-084 Kraków, Poland, *i.konieczna08@gmail.com 2Department of Agrotechnology and Agricultural Ecology, University of Agriculture in Kraków, Mickiewicza St. 21, 31-120 Kraków, Poland Effects of copper and vanadium salts on morphology of carrot (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants Introduction Plants growing in natural conditions are constantly exposed to biotic and abiotic fac- tors that cause stress reactions. Among the stress factors, a reaction with other organ- isms can be mentioned from a biotic side, and the abiotic side includes temperature, water availability, solar radiation, salinity, and environmental pollution, among oth- ers, by heavy metals (Kozłowska, 2007). In the ecotoxicological context, heavy met- als are considered to be poisons, i.e. substances that have toxic properties on living organisms. Toxicity is the ability of matter to cause physiological disturbances or the death of a living organism (Wierzbicka, 2015). The intensive development of industry and means of transport contributes unquestionably to the increase of environmental pollution with heavy metals (Luo et al., 2012). Copper is a chemical element from the group of transition metals. It creates a large variety of compounds, does not react with water, and it darkens on the air and takes on a red or red-brown colour. Natural sources of copper emissions include volcanic erup- tions, the decomposition of organic matter, forest fires, and seawater aerosols. Anthro- pogenic copper pollution results from industrial activity, including the metallurgical industry, power plants, waste incineration plant effluvium, mining waste dumps, cop- per mine tailings, sewage (including municipal sewage), agricultural inputs (fungi- cides), and road transport (Wierzbicka, 2015). Plants collect copper in a passive or active way associated with metabolic processes, usually in the form of divalent Cu2+ ions. The amount of copper consumed by plants is proportional to its concentration Iw on a K on ie cz na , G rz eg or z R ut , A ng el ik a K lis zc z 56 in the substrate (Kabata-Pendias, Pendias, 1999). Copper from anthropogenic sourc- es is better absorbed than its natural forms found in soils (Grupe, Kuntze, 1988). To meet the physiological needs of plants, small concentrations of copper are sufficient (> 2 ppm/dry mass). Regardless of the harmfulness of excess copper, it is also an in- dispensable element for the proper growth and development of plants. It participates in the basic processes of photosynthesis, respiration, the transformation of nitrogen and protein compounds, the transport of carbohydrates, the metabolism of cell mem- branes (affecting their permeability), the standardization of DNA and RNA formation processes, and indirectly participates in the immune mechanisms (Kabata-Pendias, Pendias, 1999; Guerrero, 2005). Vanadium is an element that belongs to the group of heavy metals. It is generally available in nature, and it is also widely used in industry. It is used, for example, in the production of non-ferrous alloys, highly resistant non-carbon steels, and in the chemical, glass, ceramic, paint, and photographic industries. In the atmosphere, this element comes mainly from anthropogenic sources, such as the combustion of biolites (crude oil), whose emissions are estimated at above 80%. It naturally occurs as a com- ponent of marine aerosols and comes from volcanic emissions (Urban et al., 2001). In the dissolved form of anions (VO43- and VO3-), it is easily absorbed by plants. As its concentration and acidity of soil increase, it is intensively absorbed in the soil (Ka- bata-Pendias, Pendias, 1999). The largest accumulation of vanadium occurs in leaves (280–2700 ppb), but it can also occur in fruits and seeds (0.5–60 ppb). The harmful effect of vanadium for plants can be observed at concentrations from 500 to 1.400 μg/l, which inhibit root development, overall chlorosis, and dwarfism of plants. The vanadium content in soils ranges from 10 to 220 ppm. The largest concentration of that element is found in rendzinas, and the lowest in organic soils. In soil, it is usually associated with iron oxides and clay minerals. Leaching from the level of podzolic soil and concentrations in loamy and ferruginous layers determine its mobility. Vanadium concentration is increasing in industrial areas – metal works, cement plants, coal fired power plants, and oil refineries (Kabata-Pendias, Pendias, 1999). Carrot (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) belongs to the Apiaceae family (former Umbelliferae). It is a precious vegetable plant culti- vated around the world. It was probably brought to Europe about 600 years ago from Afghanistan (Burnie, 2005). Its cultivation is common, and as many as 60 species of this genus are edible plants. In the wild state, an annual, biennial, or perennial plants occur. The proper conditions for cultivation are in airy and non-acidic soils with a permeable subsoil level. It should not be cultivated on wet soils with a high level of groundwater, loam, and poor structure. The edible root has a wide range of applications in the kitchen, because of the content of carbohydrates, proteins, carotene, volatile compounds, and pectins. The vitamins like B, C, E, H, K, PP, and 57 Effects of copper and vanadium salts on m orphology of carrot (D aucus carota L. subsp. sativus (H offm .) S chübl. & G . M artens) and w heat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants mineral salts (e.g., calcium, iron, copper, or phosphorus) are also found in the roots (Kunachowicz et al., 2017). Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important cereal species in the world. Like other grasses, it belongs to the Poaceae family. It probably comes from south-west and central Asia. Due to its nutritional value, this species is valued all over the world. Wheat grains contain 69% sugars, 12% protein compounds, and 2% fats. These three main groups of organic compounds account for a total of 83% of the dry mass of the grains. Wheat is also a source of riboflavin, thiamine, niacin, carotene, to- copherol, and mineral salts (e.g., sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, phospho- rus, sulphur, and iron). It occupies a leading position among arable crops – third place in grain production in the world (Gwóźdź, 2017). Among others, it is used in the food industry, in cosmetics, as well as a raw material for energy production (Karcz, 2013). The aim of this study was to determine the influence of copper and vanadium salts with different molar concentrations on the germination and growth of carrot (Dau- cus carota subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Material and methods Experiments were carried out under laboratory and greenhouse conditions at the De- partment of Plant Physiology, Pedagogical University of Cracow. Carrot seeds and wheat grains were used for testing. Morphometric analyses of carrot and wheat treat- ed with copper and vanadium salts at the germination and growth stages were per- formed. The experiment was carried out in two series in 10 replications. The copper and vanadium salt solutions were prepared from copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) and ammonium metavanadate (V) (H4NO3V, azanium; oxido(dioxo)vanadi- um, according to IUPAC), at concentrations of 0.3 mM, 0.6 mM, 3 mM, and 6 mM. The control group was samples watered with distilled water. 50 carrot seeds and 50 wheat grains were placed in sterile Petri dishes with copper and vanadium solutions, using tweezers. The seeds on Petri dishes were kept for 9 days in the dark at room temperature. After this time, biometric analysis, the fresh and dry mass, and the percentage of water content of carrot and wheat seedlings were measured. A few seedlings with similar morphology were selected from the control group and put in pots. River sand, rinsed several times with running and distilled water, com- prised the medium of seedlings in the pots. Then, they were kept in a greenhouse. In the first week, plants were watered regularly 2–3 times a week with distilled water (10 ml each) and once a week with Steiner medium (10 ml each). In the next four weeks, the plants were watered once a week, respectively with copper (CuSO4) and vanadium (H4NO3V) salts, with both concentrations of 0.6 mM and 3 mM (10 ml each) and Iw on a K on ie cz na , G rz eg or z R ut , A ng el ik a K lis zc z 58 Steiner medium (10 ml each). The control samples were watered twice a week with distilled water (10 ml each) and once a week with Steiner medium (10 ml each). Biometric analysis The biometric analysis of carrot and wheat seedlings was made with a ruler (with an accuracy of 0.1 cm). Measurements of the length of underground and aboveground plant organs were carried out as well. Fresh, dry mass and water content Fresh mass FM of seedlings and plants was determined on an electronic balance (Rad- wag WPS 210C). Dry mass DM was determined after oven-drying (Wamed SUP 100) plant materials at 110°C for 48 hours. On the basis of the obtained results, the per- centage of water content WC (%) was determined according to the formula: % H2O = 100 – [(DM × 100) / FM]. The measurements were made on seedlings and on the underground and aboveground parts of carrot and wheat plants. Statistical analysis The results presented in the paper are mean values from 10 independent replications with the standard deviation (± SD), calculated for each experimental variant. Anal- yses of the significance of differences between objects were made using the one-way ANOVA/MANOVA parametric statistical test, single and multi-factorial, based on the Duncan test, with p ≤ 0.05. Calculations were made using STATISTICA, v. 13.0 (Stat- Soft, Inc. 2017). Results Germination percentage Copper and vanadium salts had a clear effect on Daucus carota subsp. sativus seeds and Triticum aestivum grain germination (Fig. 1). The negative effect of copper ions on D. carota seeds germination in each of the concentrations of copper solution (CuSO4) was observed. Only carrot seeds treated with 0.6 mM copper solutions germinated in the same amount as in the control – 34%. The carrot seed germination was inhibited to 10% on 3 mM CuSO4 solution. On Petri dishes with 6 mM CuSO4, a complete inhibition of germination was revealed. In contrast, vanadium salt solutions (H4NO3V), had a posi- tive effect on the germination of carrot seeds as compared to the control treatment. The germination of T. aestivum grains depended on the concentration and the type of used solutions. The copper and vanadium solutions used at the lowest concentra- tion, i.e. 0.6 mM, slightly decreased the amount of germinated grains, compared to 59 Fig. 1. Germination of carrot seeds (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) – (A and B) and winter wheat grains (Triticum aestivum L.) – (C and D), treated with copper (CuSO4) and vanadium (H4NO3V) solutions at different concentrations (0.6 mM, 3 mM, and 6 mM) A B C D Effects of copper and vanadium salts on m orphology of carrot (D aucus carota L. subsp. sativus (H offm .) S chübl. & G . M artens) and w heat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants the control. With the increasing of copper and vanadium concentrations (3 mM and 6 mM, respectively), inhibition of wheat germination was revealed. Biometric analysis of seedlings The growth of carrot seedlings with increasing of copper and vanadium concentra- tions was significantly inhibited. In comparison to seedlings germinated on distilled water (control), the elongation growth of carrot seedlings was completely inhibited at the highest concentration of copper sulphate solution (6 mM CuSO4). The root length of wheat seedlings was inhibited in each concentration of both the copper and vana- dium salt solutions (Fig. 2). The copper and vanadium solutions at concentrations of 6 mM caused the highest inhibition of root growth. The control wheat seedlings had significantly longer coleoptiles than those saturated with copper and vanadium salt solutions. The only exception was the seedlings germinated on 0.6 mM CuSO4, when compared to the control group, no statistically significant differences in the coleoptiles length were found. The length of whole wheat seedlings, independent of the concen- tration and type of salt solutions, was shorter in relation to the seedlings germinated on distilled water. Fresh and dry mass values and water content of seedlings The fresh mass values of carrot seedlings were significantly increased only when satu- rated with 0.6 mM CuSO4. In other cases, no significant changes in the values of this Iw on a K on ie cz na , G rz eg or z R ut , A ng el ik a K lis zc z 60 Fig. 2. Length of carrot seedlings (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) – (A), roots – (B), coleoptiles – (C) and whole seedlings – (D) wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), germinated on substrates with copper (CuSO4) and vanadium (H4NO3V) solutions, at various concentrations (0.6 mM, 3 mM and 6 mM); mean values (n = 10) marked with an asterisk (*) differ significantly according to Duncan test at p ≤ 0.05 parameter were noted as compared to the control group. The dry mass of carrot seed- lings was not significantly different than seedlings germinated on salt solutions and distilled water (control). The percentage of water content only significantly increased in carrot seedlings treated with copper solutions at a 0.6 mM concentration. None of the other concentrations of copper and vanadium were found to significantly differ in the case of water content relative to control seedlings (Tab. 1). The fresh mass of wheat seedlings germinated on 3 mM and 6 mM CuSO4 and 6 mM H4NO3V was significantly decreased, compared to the control. The dry mass values of wheat seedlings significantly increased both at concentrations of 3 mM and 6 mM copper and vanadium salt solutions. The water content of wheat seedlings de- creased with the increasing of concentrations of salt solutions when compared to the control. Differences in water content values were observed between seedlings treated the 3 mM and 6 mM CuSO4, 6 mM H4NO3V solutions and control (Tab. 1). 61 Tab. 1. Fresh, dry mass and percentage of the water content of carrot seedlings (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) – A and wheat grains (Triticum aestivum L.) – B, treated with copper (CuSO4) and vanadium (H4NO3V) salt solutions at different concentrations (0.6 mM, 3 mM and 6 mM) Pa ra m et er s Control Concentration of the solution [mM] CuSO4 H4NO3V 0.6 3 6 0.6 3 6 A B A B A B A B A B A B A B FM [g] 0.19 9.31 0.35* 8.69 0.11 5.44* 0.11 5.31* 0.16 6.64 0.12 6.14 0.13 5.59* DM [g] 0.06 1.47 0.05 1.60 0.04 1.77* 0.05 1.77* 0.03 1.62 0.04 1.74* 0.04 1.80* WC [%] 67 84 85* 82 60 68* 54 67* 83 76 67 72 71 68* FM – fresh mass [g], DM – dry mass [g], WC (%) – water content [%]; average values (n = 10) marked with an asterisk (*) differ significantly according to Duncan test at p ≤ 0.05 Tab. 2. Fresh mass values of carrot (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) – A and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) – B organs, watered with copper (CuSO4) and vanadium (H4NO3V) salt solutions, at various concentrations (0.6 mM, 3 mM and 6 mM) Organ Control Concentration of solution [mM] CuSO4 H4NO3V 0.6 3 0.6 3 A B A B A B A B A B Root 0.40 4.20 0.25* 4.54 0.24* 4.10 0.21* 4.65 0.20* 4.38 Fourth leaf 0.25 1.86 0.23 1.82 0.22 1.68 0.22 1.58 0.18* 1.35 Other leaves 0.22 1.69 0.19 1.44 0.16* 1.34 0.22 1.73 0.20 1.62 The whole plant 0.87 7.75 0.67* 7.80 0.62* 7.12 0.65* 7.96 0.57* 7.35 Mean values (n = 10) marked with an asterisk (*) differ significantly according to Duncan test at p ≤ 0.05 Biometric analysis of plant organs Tab. 3. Dry mass values of carrot (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) – A and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) organs – B, treated with copper (CuSO4) and vanadium (H4NO3V) salt solutions at various concentrations (0.6 mM, 3 mM, and 6 mM) Organ Control Concentration of the solution [mM] CuSO4 H4NO3V 0.6 3 0.6 3 A B A B A B A B A B Root 0.18 0.40 0.10 0.24* 0.03* 0.28* 0.07* 0.21* 0.02* 0.20* Fourth leaf 0.08 0.25 0.08 0.22 0.01* 0.22 0.06 0.22 0.04* 0.18 Other leaves 0.15 0.22 0.15 0.19 0.01* 0.16* 0.12 0.22 0.08* 0.20 The whole plant 0.41 0.87 0.33 0.66 0.04* 0.630 0.21* 0.65 0.19* 0.57* Mean values (n = 10) marked with an asterisk (*) differ significantly according to Duncan test at p ≤ 0.05 Effects of copper and vanadium salts on m orphology of carrot (D aucus carota L. subsp. sativus (H offm .) S chübl. & G . M artens) and w heat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants Iw on a K on ie cz na , G rz eg or z R ut , A ng el ik a K lis zc z 62 The biometric analysis of carrot roots showed a slower growth trend both on 3 mM CuSO4 and H4NO3V solutions, relative to control conditions. The length of carrot leaves was not significantly different than copper and vanadium solutions and the con- trol group. The copper and vanadium salts in none of the concentrations significantly affected changes in wheat root length. The growth of wheat leaves was stimulated by CuSO4 solutions at concentrations of 0.6 mM and 3 mM, compared to the plant wa- tered with vanadium solutions and distilled water (control) (Fig. 3). Fresh and dry mass and the percentage of water content in organs of plants Fresh mass of carrot organs watered with copper and vanadium salt solutions clearly differed from the control sample (Tab. 2). The fresh mass of root in each of the used solutions was decreased. For the fourth leaf, a significant mass reduction was observed with 3 mM H4NO3V. Compared to the control carrot organs, the fresh mass of other leaves decreased only in plants wa- tered with 3 mM CuSO4. Generally, the fresh mass of the whole plant decreased under the influence copper and vanadium salts. The dry mass of carrot plants decreased in samples treated with solutions of the highest salts concentrations. The vanadium salts decreased the dry mass values in each concentration. For the root and the whole plant, significant differences in dry mass values were revealed. The water content increased for all carrot organs treated with 3 mM copper and vanadium solutions compared to the control group (Tab. 3–4). The fresh mass of wheat organs treated with copper and vanadium solutions did not significantly differ relative to the control plants. The only change was noticed in the dry mass of wheat root. The dry mass of whole plants decreased in plants watered with 3 mM H4NO3V. The percentage of water content did not differ from the control treatment (Tab. 2–4). Tab. 4. Comparison of the water content in carrot organs (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) – A and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) – B, treated with copper (CuSO4) and vana- dium (H4NO3V) salt solutions at various concentrations (0.6 mM, 3 mM and 6 mM) Organ Control Concentration of the solution [mM] CuSO4 H4NO3V 0.6 3 0.6 3 A B A B A B A B A B Root 54 90 59 95 88* 94 65 95 91* 95 Fourth leaf 67 86 66 87 98* 87 71 86 78 87 Other leaves 34 87 24 87 96* 88 43 87 62* 88 The whole plant 53 89 51 92 94* 91 68 92 92 92 Mean values (n = 10) marked with an asterisk (*) differ significantly according to Duncan test at p ≤ 0.05 63 Fig. 3. Comparison of the length of roots and leaves of carrot (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), treated with the copper (CuSO4) and vanadium (H4NO3V) salt solutions, at different concentrations (0.6 mM and 3 mM); mean values (n = 10) marked with an asterisk (*) differ significantly according to Duncan test at p ≤ 0.05 A B Discussion Unlike other undesirable substances, heavy metals cannot be broken down only by biotransformation, due to complex physico-chemical and biological processes occur- ring in the soil. These processes affect their mobility and bioavailability in the soil – plant system (Qishlaqi, Moore, 2007). Depending on the form, type, and concen- tration in the environment, heavy metals may have a positive or negative effect on organisms. The positive influence refers to those of elements that are essential in the metabolic processes (e.g., Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, and Mo), whereas toxic elements (i.e. As, Hg, Pb, Cr, and Cd) present in environment in trace amounts have a negative impact on the living organisms (Gil et al., 2006). Germination is a set of complex physiological processes regulated at the molec- ular, subcellular, and cellular level. The imbibition phase includes intensive water intake and increased respiration. In the catabolic phase, the hydrolytic decomposi- tion of storage materials occurs, and the synthesis of cellular components begins in Effects of copper and vanadium salts on m orphology of carrot (D aucus carota L. subsp. sativus (H offm .) S chübl. & G . M artens) and w heat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants Iw on a K on ie cz na , G rz eg or z R ut , A ng el ik a K lis zc z 64 the anabolic phase. The shoot that grows from the seed penetrates the seed coating, becoming a sprout and then a seedling (Bewley, 1997). Heavy metals at the early phase of the germination process affect the functioning of cellular organelles, includ- ing cell membranes, mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and nucleus. They also affect enzymes involved in metabolism, detoxification, and the repair of cell damage (Wang, Shi, 2001). Heavy metal ions interfere with DNA and nuclear proteins and cause damage to genetic material. Moreover, they induce conformation- al changes that may intrude the cell cycle modulation or cause carcinogenesis and apoptosis (Beyersmann, Hartwig, 2008). The experiments showed that, even during germination, the copper and vanadium ions significantly influenced the germina- tion of D. carota subsp. sativus and T. aestivum L. An inhibition in the germination of seeds was observed with increasing concentration of metals (Fig. 1). Zandi et al. (2017), and Możdżeń and Rzepka (2016) also demonstrated similar symptoms of the negative impact of heavy metals on plant germination. The maximum capacity of each plant to absorb heavy metals depends on the gradient of their concentra- tion and availability in the soil. Plants imbibe heavy metals by diffusion or selective transport (Peralta-Videa et al., 2009). In the first stage, some of the metals are ab- sorbed by the apical area of the plant’s roots, and some are absorbed by the entire root surface. Usually, heavy metal ions are retained in the root system and only in very small quantities transported to the shoots (Krzesłowska, 2011; Hossain et al., 2012; Barberon, Geldner, 2014). The most common symptoms of excessive accumulation of heavy metals in plants are growth disorders and changes in the biomass of organs. In the root, there are bulges in the apical part, a reduction in diameter and number of transport vessels, browning, discoloration of cell structures, lipid disturbances, and ion destabilisation (Rucińska-Sobkowiak, Pukacki, 2006; Qureshi et al., 2007). As a consequence, the suppression of the entire plant growth occurs, and, in extreme cases, the plants die (Ciećko et al., 2000). After analysing the results of these studies, both changes in the mass and the mor- phometric properties of carrot’s and wheat’s seedlings were observed (Fig. 1–3, Tab. 1–4). With the increase in the concentration of heavy metals, the inhibition of plant growth and their masses has been demonstrated. The largest differences at the high- est concentrations of copper and vanadium solutions in relation to the control plants were noted. The toxic effects of copper on growth and DM in tobacco (Nicotiana taba- cum L.), mung beans (Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek), and chinese tea (Camellia sinen- sis (L.) Kuntze) have also detected (Gori et al., 1998; Manivasagaperumal et al., 2011; Dey et al., 2015). Similarly, Janas et al. (2010) found a significant influence of copper on growth, lipid peroxidation, and the accumulation of phenolic compounds in lentil seedlings (Lens culinaris Medic.). Możdżeń et al. (2017) observed a reduction in the growth of one-year-old needles of scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in the Warcino For- 65 est District (Northwest Poland). However, in numerous studies, copper has positively influenced the growth of rape (Brassica napus L.) (Purnhauser, Gyulai, 1993), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) (Wojnarowiez et al., 2002), and annual peppers (Capsicum ann- uum L.) (Joshi, Kothari, 2007). Plants have a network of defence strategies that allow them to avoid or tolerate stress factors, including heavy metals. The first line of defence is physical barriers, which in- clude some morphological structures (thick skin) and biologically active tissues (hair and cell walls). For example, trichomes are used for the detoxification of heavy metals or the secretion of various secondary metabolites to protect against the adverse effects of metals. When heavy metals overcome biophysical barriers and metal ions get into tissues and cells, plants initiate the second line of defence, i.e. cellular defence mech- anisms that eliminate or alleviate the negative effects of heavy metals (Emamverdian et al., 2015). Soil is one of the main reservoirs that accumulate significant amounts of harmful chemicals. Slow but continuous pollution in the environment with heavy metals leads to serious threats to microorganisms, plants, and animals. The basic con- dition for limiting the uptake of heavy metals by plants is to provide them with optimal growth conditions. Cultivated areas should be located away from busy roads or mills. Farmers should care about maintaining a stable pH of soils (pH = 6.5–7), regular or- ganic fertilisation, such as manure, compost or ‘green manures’ (Luo et al., 2012). There have been many experiments on the impact of heavy metals on living organ- isms at various levels of their organisation. For example, for cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) as suggested by current studies, the uptake of their ions by plants is genetically correlated, and these metals are taken by the same or different transporters and con- trolled by common regulators (Oves et al., 2016). In order to restore the ecological balance of the environment and learn about the laws governing it, it is necessary to conduct further research on the mechanisms of interaction of heavy metals on various plant species. Only comprehensive laboratory experiments at the level of whole plants, organs, cells, and molecules combined with field research will be able to reveal the positive and negative significance of various heavy metal ions in nature and indicate effective ways to eliminate their excess (Tchounwou et al., 2014). Conclusion In this experiment, the copper and vanadium ions reduced the number of germi- nated carrot seeds (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) and winter wheat grains (Triticum aestivum) with the increase in the concentration of their solutions. Growth of carrot and wheat seedlings in copper and vanadium salt solutions was inhibited, compared to control seedlings. The fresh mass of carrot seedlings on Petri dishes watered with 0.6 mM CuSO4 was increased. The dry mass of wheat seedlings increased in 3 mM Effects of copper and vanadium salts on m orphology of carrot (D aucus carota L. subsp. sativus (H offm .) S chübl. & G . M artens) and w heat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants Iw on a K on ie cz na , G rz eg or z R ut , A ng el ik a K lis zc z 66 and 6 mM copper and vanadium salts solutions. The percentage of water content in carrot seedlings was only higher in 0.6 mM CuSO4. In the growth phase, the reduction in the root length of carrot was observed. 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Zandi (eds.), Environment at crossroads: challenges, dynamics, solutions. Iran: Haghshenass Publication. Abstract Around the world, a major concern in researches on heavy metals is placed on their toxic effect on living organisms. The problem with heavy metals occurrence in the environment is not only associated with their toxicity, but also with their ability to accumulate inside living organisms. This study presents the effect of copper and vanadium ions on the germination and growth of carrot and wheat plants. The experiment was carried out in two independent series with ten repetitions each. The water solutions of copper (CuSO4) and vanadium (H4NO3V) salts with the concentrations of 0.3 mM, 0.6 mM, 3 mM, and 6 mM were used. The control groups were objects watered with distilled water. The conducted experiment showed that the copper and vanadium ions had negative effects on the germination and growth of tested plants. With the increasing concentration of heavy metal ions, an inhibition of seeds germination was observed. The length of carrot and wheat seedlings in each salt solution was inhibited, compared to the control group. During the growth phase, the stimulation of wheat leaves growth only in copper solutions with concentration 0.3 mM and 0.6 mM was observed. Depending on the copper and vanadium ions concentrations, changes in the fresh and dry masses and the content of water were observed. Key words: cereal, root crop, germination, fresh and dry mass, copper, vanadium Received: [2018.02.09] Accepted: [2018.10.15] Wpływ jonów miedzi i wanadu na morfologię marchwi uprawnej (Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & G. Martens) oraz pszenicy (Triticum aestivum L.) Streszczenie Na całym świecie prowadzone są badania nad toksycznym wpływem metali ciężkich na organizmy żywe. Problem z ich występowaniem w środowisku wynika nie tylko z toksyczności, lecz także ze zdolności aku- mulowania w  organizmach żywych. W  pracy przedstawiono wyniki badań nad wpływem jonów miedzi 69 i  wanadu na kiełkowanie i  wzrost marchwi uprawnej oraz pszenicy zwyczajnej. Doświadczenie przepro- wadzono dla każdego gatunku w dwóch niezależnych seriach, po 10 powtórzeń. W badaniach stosowano wodne roztwory soli miedzi (CuSO4) i wanadu (H4NO3V), o stężeniach molowych: 0,3 mM; 0,6 mM; 3 mM i 6 mM. Grupę kontrolną stanowiły obiekty podlewane wodą destylowaną. Przeprowadzone eksperymenty wykazały negatywny wpływ jonów miedzi i wanadu na kiełkowanie oraz wzrost badanych roślin. Wraz ze wzrostem koncentracji jonów metali ciężkich obserwowano zahamowanie zdolności kiełkowania nasion, a  siewki podlewane roztworami soli miedzi i  wanadu były krótsze, względem podlewanych wodą. W  fa- zie wzrostu, jedynie u pszenicy zaobserwowano stymulację przyrostu liści pod wpływem związków miedzi o stężeniach 0,3 mM i 0,6 mM. W zależności od koncentracji jonów miedzi i wanadu odnotowano istotne zmiany w wartościach świeżej i suchej masy oraz procentowej zawartości wody w siewkach. Słowa kluczowe: roślina okopowa, zboże, zdolność kiełkowania, świeża i sucha masa, miedź, wanad Information about authors Iwona Konieczna https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9538-8516 She is a student of biology. She is interested in allelopathic interaction between plants and effect of heavy metals on plant morphology and physiology. Grzegorz Rut https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6719-3060 His research topic concerns the course of basic physiological processes in plants (photosynthesis, respi- ration, chlorophyll fluorescence, transpiration), concentration chlorophyll, antocyanins, and reactions of plants, mainly mosses (Polytrichum piliferum, Mnium undulatum), ferns (Platycerium bifurcatum) and vascular plants (Oxalis acetosella, O. corniculata) on abiotic stress factors (excess and deficiency of solar radiation, hypoxia, anoxia, excess heavy metals, herbicides, salinity, changes in carbon dioxide concen- trations, drought stress and low temperature). Angelika Kliszcz She is focusing on enhancing the understanding of the influence of different factors on soil structure and fertility. Particularly, she is investigating the interaction of plants with the physical, chemical, and biologi- cal properties of the soil. She is also interested in organic methods of plant production and soil-enriching substances. Effects of copper and vanadium salts on m orphology of carrot (D aucus carota L. subsp. sativus (H offm .) S chübl. & G . M artens) and w heat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants