67

Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis
Studia Naturae, 4: 67–77, 2019, ISSN 2543-8832

DOI: 10.24917/25438832.4.3

Héctor M.J. López-Castilla1, Ángel J. Ríos-Oviedo1, William Cetzal-Ix1*, Saikat Kumar Basu2

1Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Chiná. Calle 11 entre 22 y 28,  
Colonia Centro Chiná 24050. Campeche, México; *rolito22@hotmail.com

2PS, Lethbridge AB Canada T1J 4B3

Construction of the nest of Amazilia rutila De Lattre (Trochillidae)  
and its anti- predatory defensive strategy in a medium deciduous  

forest in Campeche, Mexico

Introduction

�e construction of nests by birds is a natural behavior, its size and composition varies 
depending on the species, and the selection of materials is opportunistic (Deeming, 
Mainwaring, 2015). In some cases, birds select fresh leaves of plants that have antimi-
crobial properties or that allow the abatement of ectoparasites in their nests (Dubiec, 
Mazgajski, 2013). As for the selection of habitats, birds that nest in the soil to achieve 
reproductive success tend to look for sites with heterogeneous vegetation and dense 
foliage, which also helps them counteract predation (Martin et al., 1997). But nests 
with reproductive success depend on factors such as the availability of food and the 
presence of other individuals of the same species (Danchin et al., 2004).

In the case of hummingbirds, reproductive success can be a�ected by the isola-
tion and fragmentation of vegetation, resulting in the reduction of their populations 
(Feinsinger et al., 1987). However, predation in nests is common in ecosystems, be-
ing the main factors that cause reproductive failure, a�ecting population density and 
a�ecting abundance at the community level (Angelstam, 1986; Martin, 1988; Buler, 
Hamilton, 2000; Jokimäki, Huhta, 2000). In this sense, hummingbirds are used as in-
dicator species of disturbance in tropical ecosystems; for example, in the Yucatan Pen-
insula (YP), Mexico, the diversity of hummingbirds is related to a greater abundance 
of tree species (Navarro et al., 2016). In the YP there are 12 species of hummingbirds, 
among these the cinnamon hummingbird Amazilia rutila De Lattre (Trochillidae), 
which is distributed in the Paci�c slope from the northeast of Mexico to Costa Rica 
and the Atlantic slope in the portion north and east of the YP and in Belize; this species 
is found from tropical forests, urban areas, bushes to savannas (BirdLife International, 



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2016). In the O�cial Mexican Standard (DOF-2010) and the BirdLife International 
(2016) it is categorised as Least Concern (LC).

In general, hummingbirds are considered as �ags because of their diversi�ca-
tion of plumage colours and �ight capabilities (Sánchez-Jasso, Cebrián-Abellán, 
2015; Medina- van Berkum et al., 2016), these species function as symbols to at-
tract governmental and non-governmental support, as well as a �ag for the im-
plementation of conservation programs (Noss, 1990; Andelman, Fagan, 2000; 
Carignan, Villard, 2002; Caro et al., 2004; Isasi-Catalá, 2011). With the aim of 
contributing to the knowledge of the biology and reproductive strategies of  
A. rutila, the architecture, dimensions and vegetative materials of plants used 
for the construction of their nests and the hosts used as possible adaptations to 
counteract predation are described.

Material and methods

Study area
�e �rst nest of Amazilia rutila was located in the Native Flora Conservation Unit of 
the Yucatan Peninsula (NFCUYP) at the Instituto Tecnológico de Chiná in Campe-
che, Mexico (19°46ʹ10.44ʹʹ N, 90°30ʹ16.24ʹʹ W) (Cetzal-Ix et al., 2017) (Fig. 1–2). 
�e second nest was located at the residential farms Cholul (RFC), Campeche, Mex-
ico (19°42ʹ56.44ʹʹ N, 90°23ʹ6.59ʹʹ W) 14.3 km southeast of the NFCUYP in Chiná, 
Campeche, Mexico (Fig. 3). Both sites have medium deciduous forest (Pérez et al., 
2017) with a sub humid warm climate (Aw) and an annual precipitation of 1141 mm 
(García, 1988). However, RFC site has a vegetation disturbed by agriculture and live-
stock, restricted to agro-crops, citrus and pasture (Fig. 2–3).

Observations and identi�cation of materials  
for the construction of the nest

Observations of behavioral activities in the hummingbird nests were made at time 
intervals of 12 to 23 minutes during each hour, between 8:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m. (di-
urnal) and 8:00 p.m. to 12:00 p.m. (nocturnal) during 16 days, of 14 from March to 
April 1, 2019. �e characterisation of the nests was made according to Hansell (2000) 
and with a millimeter precision Vernier. In the Laboratory of Agroecosystems and 
Conservation of Biodiversity, the identi�cation of the host plants and the materials 
used for the construction of the nest was made, through specialised literature and 
illustrated guides of �ora of the Yucatan Peninsula (Yucatán) (Carnevali et al., 2010; 
Cetzal-Ix et al., 2017).



69

Fig. 1. Plant material for nest and study area: A – Asclepias curassavica L.; B – seeds; C – �owers and 
seeds; D – pappus with seeds; E – Native Flora Conservation Unit of the Yucatan Peninsula (NFCUYP) at 
the Instituto Tecnológico de Chiná in Campeche, Mexico (Photo. W. Cetzal-Ix)

C
onstruction of the nest of Am

azilia rutila D
e Lattre (Trochillidae) and its anti- predatory defensive strategy in a m

edium
 deciduous forest in C

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peche, M

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Results and discussion

�e nest of hummingbird located in the NFCUYP presented a female of A. rutila with 
two eggs, one hatched (and the brood was not found) and the other did not hatch a�er 
16 days of observation, due to the abandonment of the adult female (Fig. 1). On the oth-
er hand, the hummingbird nest located in RFC presented an adult individual and a juve-
nile chick. Regarding the sizes of nest, both presented a concave cup-shaped symmetric 
shape, but di�ered in their sizes (Fig. 3); the NFCUYP nest has an external length of 
61.27 mm, a cup diameter of 24.62 mm, an internal diameter of 23 × 23 mm and a depth 
of 19.76 mm. �e RFC nest had an external length of 52.49 mm, a cup diameter of  
40.89 mm, an internal diameter of 23.37 × 26.07 mm and a depth of 27.94 mm.

�e main vegetative material identi�ed for the construction of the nests in both 
locations, were made from pappus from Asclepias curassavica L. (Apocynaceae) (Fig. 
2A–D). �e pappus is a thin and cottony �lament that possesses the seeds for the 
dispersion (Toro, Briones, 1995). Approximately between 10 and 14 m away from the 
host plants of the nests, respectively, A. curassavica was observed growing as a herba-
ceous from 0.5 to 1 m in height, in disturbed sites and without vegetation. In addition, 
we observed in both nests the presence of lichens in the lateral parts of the same and 
covered with cobweb, which gives them greater rigidity and support. �e web possibly 
belongs to Peucetia viridans Hentz, which was registered in the same host plants, in 
both sites (Fig. 1E).

In the NFCUYP, the identi�ed plant-host where the hummingbird nest was found 
was Chaya bush Cnidoscolus acotinifolius (Mill.) I.M. Johnst. (Euphorbiaceae), known 
in the YP as “Chaya de monte” which are shrubs with abundant white latex, trichomes 
in the form of sharp hairs and thorns (Fig. 1). �is species is native to the YP and is 
widely distributed in the northern portion of the region, mainly in deciduous and 
medium-sized sub-deciduous forest (Carnevali et al., 2010). �e nest in the host plant 
was found 1.45 m above the ground, at 37.76 mm in diameter of the main branch, 
12.50 mm in diameter of the support branch, placed 10 branches of the host plant, 
45 cm away from the stem of the host plant; the percentage of coverage of the leaves 
that provide the nest was 80% and with a percentage of 70% visibility, based on the 
criteria of observations indicated by Ralph et al. (1996). Stinging trichomes and the 
latex that possesses C. acotinifolius have been reported to act as defensive mechanisms 
for the plant (Torres-González, García-Guzmán, 2014). In this sense, they can also 
represent a defense and protection mechanism for the nests of A. rutila, particularly 
during periods of drought (January to May) when the greatest loss of leaves (40–60%) 
occurs in the low and medium deciduous and sub caducifolious forests, respectively.

The nest registered in RFC, was found in a mango tree Mangifera indica L., a 
species cultivated and used for agriculture in tropical areas, the nest was observed at  



71

Fig. 2. Cinnamon hummingbird and host plant: A – Amazilia rutila De Lattre in nest; B – nest, C – nest in 
Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) I.M. Johnst.; D – nest eggs; E – Peucetia viridans Hentz in C. aconitifolius 
(Photo. H.M.J. López-Castilla)

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onstruction of the nest of Am

azilia rutila D
e Lattre (Trochillidae) and its anti- predatory defensive strategy in a m

edium
 deciduous forest in C

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Fig. 3. Nest and study area: A – nest on Mangifera indica L.; B – nest with lichen and cobwebs; C – plants 
of Asclepias curassavica L. near the nest; D – Residential farms Cholul (RFC) in Chiná, Campeche, Mex-
ico (Photo. H.M.J. López-Castilla)



73

1.70 meters from the ground, at 37.76 mm in diameter of the main branch, 12.50 mm 
in diameter of the support branch, placed 10 branches of the host plant, 45 cm away 
from the stem of the host plant; the percentage of coverage of the leaves that provide 
the nest was 80% and with a percentage of 70% visibility. �e mango tree is widely 
cultivated in the YP and they do not lose their foliage during the seasons of the year, 
therefore, they do not expose the hummingbird nests. �ese dimensions and data on 
host plants can be considered for further studies on nesting patterns in hummingbirds.

Di�erent species of birds use a wide variety of materials for the construction of 
their nests, from dry grasses (Mainwaring et al., 2014) or dry leaves of Pinus patula 
Schltdl. & Cham. (Pinaceae) (Morales-Rozo et al., 2009) to cigarette butts in urban 
species as Haemorhous mexicanus Müll. and Passer domesticus L. (Suárez- Rodríguez 
et al., 2013). In some hummingbirds, recorded is the use of branches and dry leaves 
of Calea urticifolia (Mill.) DC. (Asteraceae) for the construction of the nest (Or-
tiz-Pulido et al., 1998), which are decorated with lichens of the genus Parmotrema sp. 
(García, Botero, 2013) or mosses such as Ancistrodes genu�exa (C. Müll.) Cros. and 
Weymouthia cochlearifolia (Schwägr.) Dixon (Meteoriaceae) (Torres-Dowdall et al., 
2007). Generally, the materials used for the construction of the nest are adhered with 
cobwebs (Ortiz-Pulido et al., 1998; García, Botero, 2013). Although plant materials for 
nest construction are described in some bird species, information on various groups 
of birds is still scarce (Deeming, Mainwaring, 2015; Biddle et al., 2018; Wesołowski, 
Wierzcholska, 2018). As well as the identity of the plant species used and if they are 
selected for some function in the nest, as for example by their antimicrobial proper-
ties to counteract ectoparasites (Dubiec, Mazgajski, 2013). For example, in Amazilia 
violiceps Gould we reported the use of dry branches of plants (not determined species 
plants) for the construction of the outer part of the nest and whitish �bers of the fruit 
of Ceiba aesculifolia (Kunth) Britt. & Baker f. tree for the inner part of the nest; inter-
woven with cobwebs of possibly Nephila sp. (DeSucre-Medrano et al., 2016).

On the other hand, Amazilia cyanocephala Lesson records the use of small grass-
es, small pieces of leaves and �owers of Mimosa sp.; likewise, scales of the stems of 
the fern Alsophila �rma (Baker) D.S. Conant, Cyathea bicrenata Liebm. and Cyat-
hea a�. fulva) (Cyatheaceae); seeds of Tillandsia deppeana Steud. (Bromeliaceae) and 
horse hairs. �e nests are decorated with pieces of liverworts Calypogeia spp. (Caly-
pogeiaceae) and adhered with the cobweb of Peucetia viridans (Ornelas-Rodríguez, 
2010). �is same species of spider was identi�ed in Amazilia rutila, with which it also 
adheres the materials to the nest. Previous studies identi�ed as host plants of hum-
mingbird nests species represent species like Phyllostachys Siebold & Zucc. (Poaceae) 
(Ornelas-Rodríguez, 2010), Heliocarpus terebinthinaceus (DC.) Hochr. (Malyaceae)  
(DeSucre-Medrano et al., 2016) and Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae) (García, Bote-
ro, 2013). �e knowledge of nesting species of the genus Amazilia is far from complete 

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onstruction of the nest of Am

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edium
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(Ornelas-Rodríguez, 1995). Although A. rutila is permanently resident in the YP, its re-
productive habits, composition and structure of its nests have not yet been fully studied.

Conclusion

The cinnamon hummingbird individuals located at the two sites of Campeche were 
selective-opportunistic with the vegetative materials used for the construction of their 
nests, because they collect plants that are close to where they establish their nests 
within their habitat. On the other hand, they select exclusively the pappus from the 
seeds of Asclepias curassavica for the construction of the nest walls, and provide 
rigidity and support with lichen and cobwebs of Peucetia viridans that are also living 
in the same host plant. The selection of the host plant occurs selectively and oppor-
tunistically for periods of drought when the eggs in the nests are mostly exposed to 
predation. The location of materials for the construction of the nest and host plants 
can help understand the composition and architecture of nests for the survival of trop-
ical bird species.

Con�ict of interest
�e authors declare no con�ict of interest related to this article.

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Abstract
�e Yucatan peninsula (YP) is part of a biogeographical area characterised by its diversity of �ora and 
fauna, among which are the birds, mainly hummingbirds, which are indicators of the state of conservation 
of the ecosystems. In birds, the site establishment and construction of nest plays a fundamental role for re-
production and survival rate, the selection of materials occurs opportunistically, but birds tend to use fresh 
leaves of plants with antimicrobial properties or that allow the depletion of ectoparasites in their nests. In 
this sense, for the �rst time we recorded for the cinnamon hummingbird (Amazilia rutila De Lattre), the 
materials used for the construction of its nest and the site of establishment of the nest in the host plants in 
two sites of a medium sub-deciduous forest in, Mexico. We recorded the construction of nests of A. rutila 
in two locations in Campeche; in the �rst site the nest was found in a chaya bush Cnidoscolus aconitifolius 
(Mill.) I.M. Johnst. (Euphorbiaceae); most possibly as an anti-predatory strategy for trichomes in the form 
of sharp hairs and spines that the plants possess in their stems and leaves. In the second site, the nest was 
found in a mango tree Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae). �e main vegetative material identi�ed for the 
construction of the nests in both locations, were made from pappus (thin and cottony �lament that possess 
the seeds for the dispersion) from Asclepias curassavica L. (Apocynaceae).
Key words: Asclepias curassavica, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, hummingbird, Mangifera indica, Yucatan 
peninsula
Received: [2019.08.05]
Accepted: [2019.11.25]



77

Budowa gniazda Amazilia rutila De Lattre (Trochillidae) i jego anty-drapieżna 
strategia obronna w lasach liściastych w Campeche w Meksyku

Streszczenie
Półwysep Jukatan (YP) jest częścią obszaru biogeogra�cznego charakteryzującego się różnorodnością �ory 
i fauny. Wśród fauny licznie występują ptaki, głównie kolibry, będące wskaźnikami stanu zachowania eko-
systemów. Dla ptaków zakładanie i budowa gniazda odgrywa podstawową rolę w rozmnażaniu i przeżywal-
ności. Wybór materiałów na gniazda odbywa się oportunistycznie, ale ptaki zwykle używają świeżych liści, 
o właściwościach przeciwdrobnoustrojowych lub pozwalających na odstraszenie pasożytów zewnętrznych 
z ich gniazd. W tym kontekście, dla kolibra cynamonowego (Amazilia rutila De Lattre) po raz pierwszy 
opisaliśmy materiały użyte do budowy gniazda oraz miejsce założenia gniazda w roślinach żywicielskich, w 
dwóch lokalizacjach lasu liściastego w Meksyku. Obserwowaliśmy budowę gniazd A. rutila w dwóch loka-
lizacjach w Campeche. W pierwszym miejscu gniazdo znaleziono w zaroślach Chaya Cnidoscolus aconitifo-
lius (Mill.) I.M. Johnst. (Euphorbiaceae);  ostre włoski i kolce, które  mają rośliny z tego rodzaju na swoich 
łodygach i liściach, najprawdopodobniej występują tu jako anty-drapieżna strategia dla włosieni. W drugim 
miejscu gniazdo znaleziono na drzewie mango Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae). Główny materiał ro-
ślinny zidenty�kowany do budowy gniazd w obu lokalizacjach został wykonany z puchu – pappus (cien-
kiego i bawełnianego �lamentu służącego do dyspersji nasion) z Asclepias curassavica L. (Apocynaceae).
Słowa kluczowe: Asclepias curassavica, Cnidoscolus aconitifolius, koliber, Mangifera indica, Półwysep 
Jukatan 

Information about authors
Héctor MJ López-Castilla
He is a bachelor student of Biology at the Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Chi-
ná. He is interested in the diversity and conservation of avifauna in Yucatan peninsula, Mexico.

Ángel J Ríos-Oviedo
He is a bachelor student of Biology at the Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto Tecnológico de 
Chiná. He is interested in the diversity and conservation of pollinators in Yucatan peninsula, Mexico.

William Cetzal-Ix https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4276-6664
PhD, focused in systematics, taxonomy and conservation of neotropical orchids and in �oristic studies of 
indicator species for conservation of forest of south-eastern Mexico. Alto interested in melliferous plants 
to increase honey in the apiculture industry in the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico.

Saikat Kumar Basu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7305-4817
Traditionally trained in botany (plant sciences) and specialising in microbiology, works actively in va-
rious areas of plant sciences and environmental conservation. �e author works extensively on forage 
crops like forage legumes and grasses, medicinal herb and spice crops like fenugreek. Currently he is also 
working in areas of pollinator insect conservation, integrated habitat development and on establishing 
Pollinator Sanctuaries in various agroclimatic regions.

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 deciduous forest in C

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exico