194 Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis Studia Naturae, 5: 194–219, 2020, ISSN 2543-8832 DOI: 10.24917/25438832.5.13 Mohamad Hesam Shahrajabian1, Wenli Sun1, Qi Cheng1,2* 1Biotechnology Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China 2College of Life Sciences, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, Hebei, 071000, China; Global Alliance of HeBAU-CLS&HeQiS for BioAl-Manufacturing, Baoding, Hebei 071000, China; *chengqi@caas.cn Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) – a promising fruit from Traditional Chinese Medicine With an understanding of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) comes a unique knowledge of Chinese herbs and fruits, as both typical ethnic foods and traditional health-promoting foods. Additionally, the exploration of Asian food culture provides historical information related to traditional Chinese medicine and the use of Chinese herbs and fruits in dietary applications (e.g. Khoshkharam et al., 2020; Shahrajabian et al., 2019 a,b, 2020 a,b; Sun et al., 2019 a,b, 2020). �e Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill. or Z. jujuba), which originated in China, has a history that spans more than 4,000 years and is recognised as the most important fruit species belonging to the Rhamnaceae Juss. family (Mardare et al., 2016), especially in Asia. It was �rst described scienti�cally by Carolus Linnaeus as Rhamnus ziziphus L., in “Species Plantarum” in 1753. Later in 1768, Philip Miller concluded it was su�cient- ly distinct from Rhamnus genus to merit separation into a new Ziziphus genus. Miller named it Z. jujuba, using Linnaeus’s species as a name for the genus (Bean, 1988). Chinese jujube and the similar Indian jujube (Z. mauritiana Lamk.) are largely used in traditional Asian medicine as super fruits (Krishna et al., 2016) – Fig. 1. Indian jujube (also belonging to family Rhamnaceae L.) is a tropical/subtropical fruit native to the northern hemisphere (Pareek, 2013). For example, Li et al. (2018) discovered that the Chinese jujube originates from sour jujube (Z. acidojujuba Mill.) and is an economically very important genus (Zhang et al., 2015). �ey also concluded that most jujube cultivars have a certain correlation with their origin, and there are ob- vious gene exchanges between sour jujube, Chinese and Indian jujube cultivars. Its pulp is eaten mostly fresh but may be dried or processed into confectionary recipes in bread, cakes, compotes and candy (Krška, Mishra, 2008; Mishra, Krška, 2017). 195 C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine Wang and Hu (2016) reported that jujube is an important fruit in China and has attracted signi�cant interest because of its common consumption as food, a food ad- ditive, as a �avouring and in TCM (Mahajan, Chopda, 2009). In China, a wine made from jujubes, called “hong zao jiu” is also produced. In a Chinese book on herbal medicine, Huangdi Neijing (475-221 BC), jujube was described as one of the �ve most valuable fruits in China. In Shennong Bencao Jing (300 BC-200 AD), an earlier book recording medicinal herbs, jujube was considered to be one of the superior herbal medicine that prolonged life-span by nourishing blood, improving quality of sleep, and regulating the digestive system (Chen et al., 2017). According to Gupta (2004), jujube, along with date palms and grapes, started to be domesticated on the Indian subcontinent around the year 9,000 BC, together with wheat and barley, which were cultivated from the very beginning of agriculture. �e aim of this article was to review the most important information about the Chinese jujube’s (1) botanical characteristics, (2) cultivation in China and around the world, (3) variety of cultivars, (4) crop pests and (5) importance in traditional cuisine and Chinese medicine. Fig. 1. Chinese jujube’s dry fruit – drupe (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) (Photo. M.H. Shahrajabian) M oh am ad H es am S ha hr aj ab ia n, W en li S un , Q i C he ng 196 Jujube classification and species characteristic Ziziphus jujuba, commonly known as jujube, red date and Chinese date, is a species that has many scienti�c names. �ese names are used as synonyms – a list of syno- nyms and a detailed botanical description (�ower, fruits and trunk, branches, culture and other characteristics) of this species can be found in the appendix (Tab. 1, points 1–2 – Appendix 1). As a species found on �ve continents, it is characterised by a very large variety of cultivars (Tab. 1, points 3–7 – Appendix 1), which proves it is a plant that has been used by humans for centuries. Similarly, Z. mauritiana is characterised by a very diverse local (customary) nomenclature, which proves that it is a plant com- monly known for cultivation in various regions, especially in Asia (Tab. 2, points 1–2 – Appendix 1). From an economic point of view, fruits are the most important raw material de- rived from species of the Ziziphus genus. �ere are three phases of fruit maturation of the Chinese jujube, which are based on colour, �esh �rmness and composition, such as starch, sugar, acid and water. �e phases are 1) white mature: the fruit is near full size and shape – the skin of the fruit is thin and changes from green to greenish white in colour, and the �esh becomes white and loose with less juice and sugar and more starch; 2) crisp mature: the fruit skin is half to fully red in colour, becomes thicker, harder and easily separated from the �esh which becomes crisp, juicy and sweet, con- taining more sugar and acid; and 3) fully mature: sugar content of the �esh increases rapidly and water content begins to decrease, while the �esh near the stone and fruit stalk becomes yellow and so� and the skin changes to a dark red and the fruit becomes wrinkled. �ese three stages of ripening determine the speci�c use and properties of the fruits of not only Chinese jujube but all species of this genus. Jujubes adapt to a wide range of elevation, from 0 to 2,000 m, between latitude 18o14ʹ to 45o and longitude 76° to 124° and in soil pH 5.5 to 8.5. Jujubes may tolerate −30°C in the winter and 49°C in the summer (Miri, 2018). Eight major phenological stages have been observed for Chinese jujube: bud growth; leaf formation; leaf growth; shoot growth; formation of in�orescence; �owering; fruit formation, growth and de- velopment; fruit maturation and winter dormancy (Sapkota et al., 2020). Jujube trees adapt to drought conditions and produce su�cient yield under severe conditions (Sülüşoğlu et al., 2014). �e tree can survive with an annual rainfall of only 200 mm but, for better fruit set and fruit quality, more precipitation or supplemental irrigation is needed. Shahin et al. (2011) found that increasing water stress signi�cant- ly reduced rate of stem length, number of leaves per plant, leaf area and fresh and dry weight of di�erent plant organs. �ey also concluded that the Date genotype of the Chinese jujube had the highest statistically signi�cant performance in increasing veg- etative growth compared with other genotypes, when under water stress. Additionally, 197 this species is autogamic, so only one tree is needed for fruit-set. Additionally, jujubes are also tolerant of high salinity, alkalinity and root exposure from erosion or roots being deeply covered by blowing sand, but Chinese jujube should not be planted in the shade of other trees (Yao, 2013). Jujube, as a nutritious fruit, is important especially for people in low-income groups because of its relatively inexpensive cost for value, compared to other available fruits. It is also a relatively less perishable fruit and its cultivation by large-scale famers can be economically bene�cial and help to maintain national economic levels (Islam et al., 2016). Jujube cultivation in China Chinese jujube is considered an ideal economic crop for arid and semiarid areas of the temperate zone where common fruit trees do not grow well (Liu, 2010). Chinese jujube has become a leading fruit tree in the northern part of China with a total pro- duction of 4,250,000 t in 2009 with a planting area of 1,500,000 ha (Ping et al., 2012). China produces and exports more jujube than any other country in the world, and it has been estimated that more than 90 percent of the world’s products made from ju- jube are provided by China (Zhang et al., 2012). According to the Xinjiang Statistical Yearbook 2015, there was a total planting area of 483,628 ha and yearly production of more than 2.5 million t (Chen et al., 2017). In China, the jujube tree is popular as a woody species that reduces soil erosion while producing an economic crop in response to the government policy of changing from small grain production to conservation forestry on the Loess Plateau (Wu et al., 2013). �e Henan province used to be one of the most important jujube production regions in China (Wang, Hu, 2016) – Fig. 2. �e planting area for jujube in Shanxi province exceeds 100 acres, which are most- ly planted in the mountains where dry farming is the primary mode of cultivation due the severe scarcity of water for irrigation (Chen et al., 2014). Guo et al. (2017) found that wild jujube (Ziziphus acidojujuba Mill.) is highly tolerant to alkaline, saline and drought stress. Liu et al. (2016) also recommended that, in order to fully utilise the limited arable land and achieve fast economical returns, jujube/wheat intercropping be employed in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in China by planting wheat be- tween the lines of jujube tree when jujube trees are young. Because of its positive eco- logical, economic and social bene�ts, the jujube/wheat intercropping system became one of the most widely applied agro-forestry systems in Xinjiang, northwest China. Jujube production has developed at a rapid and signi�cant pace over the past 39 years in China. Its annual production has increased more than 15 times from 1980 to 2015 from 376,000 t to over 6,000,000 t, on a fresh weight basis. Ninety percent of C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine M oh am ad H es am S ha hr aj ab ia n, W en li S un , Q i C he ng 198 this production is concentrated in six Northern provinces, namely Hebei, Xinjiang, Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi and Henan (Fig. 2). Moreover, the current total growing area in China is approximately 2 million hectares. Xinjiang provinces in western China have seen a massive increase in production in the last 10 years with both the introduction of new cultivars and favourable growing conditions for producing premium quality fruit (Lin et al., 2013). �e 10 leading cultivars of Chinese jujube in China and other imported cultivars are shown in the appendix (Tab. 1, points 3–4 – Appendix 1). Jujube cultivation in different parts of the world China is undoubtedly one of the largest producers of Ziziphus jujuba in the world (Chen et al., 2017; Višnjevec et al., 2019; Shahrajabian et al., 2019c). Over 40% of this plant’s crop is grown in China (Fig. 3). However, other countries have shown a grow- ing interest in producing this species, such as Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Algeria and Iraq, primarily due to the health-promoting properties of the fruit and ease of growth (Tab. 1, point 5 – Appendix 1). In Lebanon, Jordan and other Middle Eastern countries, the fruit is eaten as snacks or alongside a dessert a�er a meal. In Persian cuisine, the dried drupes are known as Annab, while in Azerbaijan, it is commonly eaten as a snack and known as Innab. �e Fig. 2. �e major cultivation areas of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) in China (Chen et al. 2017 – changed) 199 Turks use a similar name, hunnap. Z. jujuba grows in northern Pakistan and is known as Innab, commonly used in the Tibb Unani system of medicine. In India, the fruits are dried in the sun and the hard nuts are removed, then it is pounded with tamarind, red chilies, salt and jiggery. In both China and Korea, a sweetened tea syrup contain- ing jujube fruits is available in glass jars, and canned jujube tea or jujube tea in the form of teabags is also available. Jujube has been introduced worldwide because of its high nutritional and economic values (Gao et al., 2013; Zhang, Li, 2018). Ghazaeian (2015) concluded that climate is very important for the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of jujube. A demand for fresh jujubes continues to outweigh supply on the local markets (Johnstone, Shan, 2016). Western Australia is close to South-East Asia, thus its counter-seasonal production versus the northern hemisphere may provide an opportunity to market Australian grown fresh Chinese jujube for the increasing o�-season demand in these countries. �e jujube industry in Western Australia has an exciting future, as it grows well in many areas of the country. �ere are also many cultivars, which con�rms the signi�cant interest of local growers (Tab. 1, point 6 – Appendix 1) Ciocarlan (2000) reported that the Chinese jujube could be found in a semi-spon- taneous status in the Dobrogea region, which is located between the Danube and the Black sea in Romania; there are several places where the Chinese jujube exists in nat- uralised populations. In Romania, the tree was brought “via the Silk road” 2,000 years ago (Stănică, Vasile, 2008; Stănică, 2009). It is cultivated in Europe, but its primari- Fig. 3. World production of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.); additionally about 6% other countries together – Azerbaijan, USA, Korea, Australia and others (data source: Johnstone, 2017) C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine M oh am ad H es am S ha hr aj ab ia n, W en li S un , Q i C he ng 200 ly researches have been conducted in Romania, Italy and Macedonia (Cossio, Bassi, 2013; Johnstone, 2014; Markovski, Velkoska-Markovska, 2015; Višnjevec et al., 2019). In North America, jujubes were found to be cultivated mainly in the southwest, southern and south-eastern states – from North and South Carolina to Florida and from Georgia to California, as well as in Pennsylvania (Yao et al., 2015). �e planta- tion of jujube is becoming increasingly popular in this part of the world, as evidenced by its numerous cultivars (Tab. 1, point 7 – Appendix 1). Jujube pests and other problems with fruit production Balikai et al. (2013) described almost 130 pest species that were recorded on Ziziphus crops in India and speci�ed that 177 species of insect (some of them are listed in table 3) and non-insect were recorded to be jujube pests around the world. In India, in an IPM governmental meeting in 2015, 10 pests were cited as pests of national signi�cance: fruit �ies Carpomyia vesuviana Costa (Diptera: Tephritidae), fruit borers Meridarchis scyrodes Meyr (Lepidoptera: Carposinidae), green slug caterpillars �osea sp. (Lepidop- tera: Limacodidae), grey caterpillars �iacidas postica Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), mites Larvacarus transitans Ewing (Tetranychoidea: Tenuipalpidae), ber beetles Adore- tus pallens Banchard (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidae), grape mealybugs Maconellicoccus hir- sutus Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), ber mealybugs Perissopneumon tamarindus Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (�ysanoptera: �ripidae) and termites Odontotermes obesus Rambur (Isoptera: Termatidae). Tab. 3. Taxonomical position and nature of various insects observed on ecosystems with jujube (Nizama- ni et al., 2015) No. Common name Technical name Family Order Major Pests 1. Jujube Lead roller Ancylis sativa Liu Tortricidae Lepidoptera 2. Jujube Hairy cater- pillar Euproctis fraternal Moore Lymentriidae Lepidoptera 3. Jujube beetle Adretus pallens Blanchard Scarabaeidae Coleoptera Minor Pests 4. Cutworm Agrotis biconica Kollar Notuidae Lepidoptera 5. Thrip Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood Rambutanae Thysanoptera 6. Jujube looper Achaea janata Linn. Notuidae Lepidoptera 7. Jassid Amrasca biguttula biguttula Ishida Cicadilidae 8. Aphid Aphis gossipie Glover Aphididae Hemiptera 9. Jujube Gray weevil Myllocerus discolor Boheman Curculionidae Coleoptera 201 Sporadic Pest 10. Dusky cotton bug Oxycareous hyalinipen- nis Costa Lygaediae Hemiptera 11. Green Grasshopper Dichromorpha viridis Scudder Acrididae Orthoptera 12. Jujube Butter �y Tarucus balkanicus Freyer Lycaenidae Lepidoptera 13. Moth Orgyia postica Wlk Lymantriidae Lepidoptera In Europe, the following jujube pests were noted: Carpomyia vesuviana, C. incom- plete Becker, Bactrocera zonata Saunders, Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann and Hispa sp., Grammadera clara Brunner von Wattenwyl (Balikai et al., 2013). In Romania, the most signi�cant pests of Z. jujuba are Carpomya vesuviana and C. incomplete – dip- terous that lay their eggs in July under the fruit epiderma, and Carposina sasakii Mats. – a Lepidopterous which, in China, destroys 15–20% of fruits; with other minor pests being Ceratitis capitata, Cydia molesta Busck and Polycrosis botrana Schu�ermuller (Stănică, 1997). In �eld experiments, while monitoring pest incidence, several species were identi�ed that may become a threat: Halymorpha halys Stal (Heteroptera: Penta- tomidae), Metcalfa pruinosa Say (Homoptera: Flatidae), Ceratitis capitata and Nezara viridula L. (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae); in the same experiment scientists reported other potential polyphagous pests, like weevils, fruit borers and moths that insigni�- cantly damaged the fruits (Ciceoi et al., 2017). Hua et al. (2015) found that jujube fruit cracking has become a major concern in jujube production and it can a�ect fruit quality and yield and crop productivity, result- ing in signi�cant economic loss. Zeraatgar et al. (2018) concluded that salicylic acid and calcium nitrate play an important role in maintaining and extending post-harvest quality of fresh jujube fruit. �ese substances could cause at least a 10-day delay in the reduction of some the fruit’s bene�cial attributes. Disease and cracking resistant cultivars are shown in table 1, point 8 – Appendix 1. Jujube nutritional composition and chemical constituents Kader et al. (1982) stated that, relative to most other fresh fruits, Chinese jujubes are lower in water content and titratable acidity and higher in total sugars (mostly reduc- ing sugars) and phenolics. �e major minerals in jujube are phosphorus, potassium, calcium and manganese. In addition, there are also high amounts of sodium, zinc, copper and iron. Chinese jujubes are very rich in ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content which increase with maturation to 559 mg/100 g fresh weight. �is was also con�rmed in other studies (e.g. Pareek, 2013). �e fruits are nutritious, being high in �avonoids and vitamins B1 and B2, thus it can be considered a so-called functional food – having nutritional as well as medicinal uses (Huang et al., 2008). C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine M oh am ad H es am S ha hr aj ab ia n, W en li S un , Q i C he ng 202 Rahman et al. (2018) noted that 51.99–71.75% of the Chinese jujube is edible, with the edible part containing 82.35–89.63% carbohydrates, 4.43–6.01% protein, 0.48–0.63% lipids, 2.80–4.80% polysaccharides, 45.64–88.97 mg/100 g ascorbic acid, 132.16–196.58 mg/100 g phenolics and 101.17–132.04 mg/100 g �avonoids in its dry matter. �e jujube fruit is rich in mineral content and �bre, a good source of food for direct consumption and it may be a useful food additive when dried (Hendek Ertop, Atasoy, 2018; Višnjevec et al., 2019). Jujube fruit, especially in dried and powder form, can be valorised as a fortifying and hydrocolloid ingredient, due to its high carbohy- drate content. However, the content of di�erent substances may vary depending on the breed- ing cultivar. Li et al. (2007) provided the proximate composition of �ve cultivars of Chinese jujube (‘Jinsixiaozao’, ‘Yazao’, ‘Jianzao’, ‘Junzao’, ‘Sanbianhong’). In their ex- periment, total phenols, minerals and vitamins were determined for the fruits of these cultivars; signi�cant variation was found for content of water (17.38–22.52%), carbo- hydrate (80.86–85.63%), proteins (4.75%–6.86%), lipids (0.37–1.02%), soluble �bre (0.57–2.79%), insoluble �bre (5.24–7.18%), reducing sugar (57.61–77.93%) and ash (2.26–3.01%). Glucose and fructose were identi�ed as major soluble sugars in all �ve cultivars, while rhamnose, sorbitol and sucrose were also present in lower amounts. Chen et al. (2018) reported the ‘Junzao’ cultivar contained relatively low levels of total dietary �bre, protein, total sugar and total titratable acids. �e ‘Huizao’ cultivar pos- sessed an intermediate level sugar-to-acid ratio and intermediate levels of ascorbic acid. �e ‘Dazao’ cultivar showed high levels of total dietary �bre, protein, sugar and total acids. In their experiment, principal components analysis indicated that the pa- rameters that di�erentiated these jujube cultivars appeared to be the total dietary �bre, protein, total sugar, fructose, glucose, sucrose and total titratable acids. Chen et al. (2017) noted that jujube exerts neuroprotective activity, including pro- tecting neuronal cells against neurotoxin stress, stimulating neuronal di�erentiation, increasing expression of neurotrophic factors and promoting memory and learning. Flavonoid, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and jujuboside may potentially be the bioactive ingredients accounting for the aforesaid biological activities. �ese �ndings imply that jujube is a potential candidate for use in the development of health supplements for prevention and/or treatment of neurological diseases. Seven chemical markers found in jujube, including kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside, quercetin 3-O-rutino- side, (-)-catechin, (-)-epicatechin, swertish, spinosin and cAMP, have also been asso- ciated with neuroprotection (Fig. 4 – Appendix 2). �e structures of the triterpenic ac- ids, nucleosides and nucleobases, as well as saccharides, in jujube fruits are presented in �gure 5 – Appendix 2. �e appendix also contains a list of all of the most important chemical ingredients contained in jujube fruit (Tab. 1, point 9 – Appendix 1). 203 Traditional medicinal uses and potential health benefits of jujube Jujube (Zisiphus jujuba) has been used as a TCM plant for many years for its vari- ous and numerous health bene�ts, including anti-in�ammatory (Yu et al., 2012), an- ti-cancer (Plastina et al., 2012), gastro-intestinal protective (Huang et al., 2008), an- ti-oxidant (Cheng et al., 2012), anti-insomnia and neuro-protective (Yoo et al., 2010) properties. Jujube fruits and seeds are still used in Chinese and Korean traditional medicine and are believed to alleviate stress, according to the modern medicine in- dustry (Mill Goetz, 2009). Among other things, jujube causes a decrease in the blood levels of glucose and lipids and causes a signi�cant decline in triglyceride, LDL and cholesterol levels (Hemmati et al., 2015). Tahergorabi et al. (2015) reported that dif- ferent parts of the jujube have been used for curing di�erent kinds of illness such as diabetes, diarrhoea, skin infections, liver complaints, urinary disorders, obesity, fever, pharyngitis, bronchitis, anaemia, cancer, insomnia and, of course, for blood puri�ca- tion and toni�cation of the gastro-intestinal tract. �e jujube leaf, which is the main by-product of the jujube, has been used in TCM for thousands of year, to improve sleep, to nourish the heart and soothe the nerves and to reduce haemorrhaging and diarrhoea (Zhang et al., 2014; Damiano et al., 2017). Modern studies found that the jujube leaves were rich in bioactive components and have various physiological and pharmacological functions (Mahajan, Chopda, 2009; Damiano et al., 2017). �e aqueous ethanol extract of the jujube leaf is used as an energetic constituent for hepatosis and wound healing in animal trials (Hovanet et al., 2016; Bai et al., 2017). Jujube-leaf green tea extracts can inhibit human hepatocel- lular carcinoma cells by activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) (Huang et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2017); additionally, an unidenti�ed β-D-glucosidase inhibitor has been found in jujube leaf extract (Jo et al., 2016). Based on Iranian traditional medicine, local healers have used powders made of the stem bark and leaves of jujube to cure wounds on di�erent parts of the body, in- cluding oral wounds such as aphthous (Hamedi et al., 2016). Roots and bark of jujube have been used to treat dysentery; the bark has been reported to cure boils and found helpful for the treatment of diarrhoea (Mahajan, Chopda, 2009) and jujube seeds were used to cure eye diseases and help with leucorrhoea. Currently, fruits of jujube are widely used in Iranian folk medicine as an antitussive, laxative agent and blood pres- sure reducer (Hamedi et al., 2016). In Persian traditional medicine, jujube fruit is also used in combination with other herbal medicines to treat colds, �u and coughing. Jujube fruit contains �avonoids, vitamins, amino acids, organic acids, polysac- charides, and microelements (Li et al., 2007, 2016), which have been found useful in spleen diseases and supporting body systems (Shen et al., 2009). Hamedi et al. (2016) found that the fruit of the jujube is digestible; is tonic; works like an aphrodisiac; is C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine M oh am ad H es am S ha hr aj ab ia n, W en li S un , Q i C he ng 204 laxative; removes biliousness, burning sensations, thirst and vomiting and is also used in curing tuberculosis and blood diseases. Beavo and Brunton (2002) found that jujube fruits contain a certain amount of cAMP, which has a positive e�ect on the heart muscle, nutritional myocardium and diastolic blood vessels, as well as having anti-arrhythmia and anti-platelet aggregation e�ects. Recent phytochemical research on jujube fruits has revealed anti-cancer, an- ti-in�ammatory, anti-obesity, immuno-stimulating, anti-oxidant, hepato-protective and gastro-intestinal protective properties, as well as inhibition of foam cell formation in macrophages (Abedini et al., 2016; Keerthi et al., 2016; Rajopadhye, Upadhye, 2016; Alhassan et al., 2019). Cosmulescu et al. (2017) mentioned that jujube fruits are rich in bioactive com- pounds (�avonoids, carotenoids and anthocyanin) and can complement a healthy hu- man diet. Shi et al. (2018) concluded that changes in jujube fruit colour are associated with changes in antioxidant activity. Flavonoids and polysaccharides could contribute to the antioxidative e�ect of jujube (Choi et al., 2011). Hoshyar et al. (2015) indicated that, among other things, Z. jujuba ameliorates the adverse e�ects of NMU carcinogenesis and could be useful, for example, in treating mammary tumours in humans. Taechakulwanijya et al. (2013) found that jujube seed extracts were not toxic to control Vero cell lines but induced cell death in Jurkat leu- kemia T cell lines, making them promising candidates for more elaborate studies of their anticancer mechanisms. �e triterpene acids from jujube are considered active ingredients, having anti-in�ammatory and anti-cancer properties (Tahergorabi et al., 2015). Betulinic acid and jujuboside B might be the active components underlying ben- e�cial e�ects on the cardiovascular system (Seo et al., 2013). Vafaei and Abdollahza- deh (2015) reported that jujube fruit extract could accelerate burn wound healing. Jujube polysaccharides are thought to be the primary active ingredient contributing to jujube’s immune-modulating and hemato-poietic functions (Zhao et al., 2008). �e jujube polysaccharides, composed of glucose (23%), xylose (31.3%), mannose (12.9%) and fructose (21.6%), possess antioxidant e�ects that may have contributed to ob- served positive e�ects (Wang, 2011). Gao et al. (2013) mentioned that jujube polysac- charides are reported to be useful in ameliorating intestinal oxidative injury resulting from ischemia and reperfusion. Additionally, it was found that taking a combination of jujube fruit and low doses of routine pharmaceutical drugs can improve and cure ulcerative colitis disease (Gheibi et al., 2018). Generally, the vitamin and mineral content of jujube fruit helps to support car- diovascular health and enhance metabolism. �e most important pharmacological properties of jujube are anti-diabetic e�ects, hypnotic-sedative and anxiolytic e�ects, neuroprotective activity, inhibition of sweetness, anti-cancer activity, antimicrobial 205 activity, anti-ulcer activity, anti-in�ammatory and anti-spastic e�ects, anti-allergic ac- tivity, permeability-enhancing activity, cognitive activity, anti-fertility/contraceptive properties, hypotensive and anti-nephritic e�ects, cardiovascular activity, immunos- timulant e�ects, anti-oxidant e�ects and wound healing activity (Anbarasi, Brindha, 2013; Pareek, 2013). Additionally, Varghese and Patil (2005) revealed that jujube leaves exert an insecti- cide e�ect against Helicoverpa armigera Hübner and Triboliun confusum Jacquelin du Val. It has been shown that jujube leaf insecticide activity occurs through inhibition of digestive and mitochondrial enzymes which lead to retarded larval growth. Conclusion Jujube or Chinese dactyl (Zizyphus jujuba) is a popular cultivated plant in many parts of the world, especially in China and Iran. Its fruit is an edible oval drupe, which has a wide range of applications, especially in food and medicine. Jujube trees have the abil- ity to adapt to various biotic and abiotic stresses such as salinity and drought. Chinese jujube is grown in temperate regions, while the similar Indian jujube (Z. mauritiana) is cultivated in hot arid regions of India. China is still the largest producer of jujube fruit in the world, although recently there has been a notable increase in interest in jujube fruit production in other parts of the world. Jujube fruit contains 23 types of amino acids that are not found in most other kinds of fruits. It also contains vitamin C, ribo�avin and thiamine. �e major components of the jujube fruit are used, in combination with other medicinal plants and fruits, in TCM. �e jujube leaf, which is the main by-product, has also been used in TCM for thousands of years. Jujube has numerous important pharmacological activities and is considered a valuable source of nutraceuticals. It is a plant with great healing potential in diseases of civilisation, including various types of cancer, and is an important source of nutrients, easily avail- able in the poorer regions of the world. Con�ict of Interests �e authors declare that there is no con�ict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. References Abedini, M.R., Erfanian, N., Nazem, H., Jamali, S., Hoshyar, R. (2016). Anti-proliferative and apoptotic e�ect of Ziziphus jujuba on cervical and breast cancer cells. Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine, 6(2), 142–148. Alhassan, K.A., Indabawa, A.S., Shah, M.M. (2019). 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European Food Research and Technology, 226, 985–989. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-007-0620-1 C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine M oh am ad H es am S ha hr aj ab ia n, W en li S un , Q i C he ng 212 Appendix 1 Tab. 1. Detailed characteristics of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) 1) Scienti�c classi�cation and synonyms (Liu, 2010) Kingdom: Plantae; Unranked: Angiosperms; Unranked: Eudicots; Unranked: Rosids; Order: Rosales; Family: Rhamnaceae; Genus: Ziziphus; Species: Z. jujuba Mill. Synonyms: Paliurus mairei H. Lev; Rhamnus jujuba L., R. soporifera Lour., R. zizyphus L. Ziziphus jujuba (L.) Lam., Z. jujube (L.) Gaertn, Z. mairei (H. Lev.) Browicz & Lauener, Z. nitida Roxb., Z. orthacantha DC., Z. poiretii G.Don nom. illeg., Z. rotundata DC., Z. sativa Gaertn., Z. soporifera (Lour.) Stokes, Z. spinosa (Bunge) Hu ex F.H. Chen, Z. tomentosa Poir., Z. trinervia Roth nom illeg., Z. vulgaris var. inermis Bunge, Z. vulgaris var. spinosa Bunge, Z. zizyphus (L.) H. Karst., Z. zizyphus (L.) Meikle., Z. jujubum St.-Lag. 2) Description of all plant: �ower, fruit and trunk branches, culture and other characteristics (Liu, 2010; Markovski, Velkoska-Markovska, 2015; Ivanišová et al., 2017) Height: 457 to 1070 cm; Spread: 305 to 915 cm; Crown uniformity: irregular outline or silhouette; Crown shape: oval, round; Crown density: open; Growth rate: medium; Texture: �ne. Foliage – Leaf arrangement: alternate; Leaf type: simple; Leaf margin: crenate, serrulate; Leaf shape: lan- ceolate, ovate; Leaf venation: bowed; Leaf type and persistence: deciduous; Leaf blade length: 5 to 10.5 cm, less than 5.5 cm; Leaf colour: green; Fall colour: yellow; Fall characteristic: showy. Flower – Colour: yellow; Flower characteristics: inconspicuous and not showy; spring �ower. Fruit – Shape: oval, round; Length: 2.5 to 12.5 cm; Fruit covering: �eshy; Colour: black, red; Fruit char- acteristics: it attracts squirrels and other mammals; fruit, twigs, or foliar cause signi�cant litter, showy. Trunk and branches – Grow mostly upright and will not droop, not particularly showy, should be grown with a single leader, thorns are present on the trunk or branches. Breakage: resistant; Current year twig colour: brown; Current year twig thickness: medium. Other characteristics – Roots: Surface roots are usually not a problem. Culture – Light requirement: tree grows in part shade/part sun; and also grows in full sun; Soil toleranc- es: clay, loam, sand, slightly alkaline, acidic, well-drained; Drought tolerance: high. 3) �e 10 leading cultivars in China (Liu, 2010) Cultivar name Use Main producing area ‘Dongzao’ fresh Hebei, Shandong ‘Linyilizao’ fresh Shanxi ‘Pozao’ dry Hebei ‘Changhongzao’ dry Shandong ‘Yuanlingzao’ dry Shandong, Hebei ‘Muzao’ dry Shanxi, Shannxi ‘Bianhesuan’ dry Henan ‘Jinsxiaozao’ dry, fresh Hebei, Shandong ‘Huizao’ multipur- pose Henan, Xinjiang ‘Zanhuangdazao’ multipur- pose Hebei, Northwest 4) Potential jujube cultivars for importation from China (Liu, 2010) Cultivar name Province Overview ‘Baodeyouzao’ (Oil jujube) Shanxi, Shaanxi, Yellow River • High yielding, Early maturing, • Average fruit weight 11.6g, 3.5 × 2.1cm, • Deep red skin, dense, juicy �esh with sweet and sour �avour, • Low fruit cracking, low fruit drop; 213 ‘Dongzao’ (Winter jujube, win- ter date, lubei) Shandon, Hebei • Large tree, high yield, late fruiting, • Large fruit (11.5g ave, max 35g, 2.7-3.4cm × 2.6 × 3.4cm), • �in peel, �esh crisp, white, juicy, sweet and rich, • High yield and large, late fruit; ‘Guantanzao’ Shanxi • Medium sized tree, weak vigour, productive and stable yield, mid-late maturity, • Med-large fruit, oblong shaped, (3.5 × 2.5cm), ave fruit weight 10g (max 12g), • �ick peel, sweet �esh, less juice, • Low fruit cracking, high edible rate and dry quality, adaptabil- ity to drought and disease; ‘Huizao’ (Ash date, Zin- zhuang) Xinzheng City, He- nan prov- ince • Medium sized tree, oval shaped fruit (3.2 × 2.3cm), average fruit weight 12.3g, max 13.3g, • Crisp, sweet and juicy fruit, • Fruit is susceptible to cracking/splitting. Suitable for dried fresh and processed or candied dates; ‘Jinsixiaozao’ Hebei • Small fruit, average weight of 5g, skin is bright red, �esh is white, dense and crisp texture, medium juiciness, sweet and slightly sour, • Mid-late maturing fruit, • Good for storage and transportation, good quality for fresh or dried; ‘Kongfusucuizao’ Qufu, Shandong • Tree is talk and strong, • Fruit is long oval shaped, average fruit weight 12g, max 20 g, • Crisp, juicy, sweet fruit, slightly sour, • Early maturing variety, drought tolerant and resistant to rust and anthracnose, fruit shrink disease; ‘Linyilizao’ (Li) Shanxi, Yuncheng, Linyi • Small tree, dense foliage, large fruit, diameter 4.2 × 4.0cm, average fruit weight 30g, max 40g, • �e fruit is thin and ochre-red with white �esh that is crisp, juicy and sweet, • Late maturing fruit, • �e fruit is big and beautiful with a high edible rate, adaptable tree; ‘Ningyangliuyuexian’ (June Fresh) • Smaller tree, dense branches, no thorns, • Fruit long tube shape, average fruit weight 13.6g, • Peel medium-thick, light purple, �esh green and white. Fine quality fruit that is crisp, sweet and slightly acidic, • Resistant to cracking, good quality fresh jujube however ad- aptability is poor and the tree requires deep and fertile soil conditions. Early maturing; ‘Zanhuangdazao’ (Gold silk jujube) Hebei, Zanhuang • Tree is tall and upright, Fruit oblong or obovate, diameter 4.1 × 3.1cm, average fruit weight 17.3g, max 29g. Peel is thick and dark reddish brown. Flesh nearly white, dense, medium juice, sweet and sour, • Only natural triploid, fruit suitable for dry, candied and fresh. Versatile, adaptable, resistant to drought, suitable for warm climate; ‘Zaocuiwang’ Hebei • Strong tree vigour and easy to manage, early maturing, • High yield, 2-year-old gra�ed plants produce about 5kg, • Strong resistance to drought, waterlogging and salinity. Very lows cracking and rust; C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine M oh am ad H es am S ha hr aj ab ia n, W en li S un , Q i C he ng 214 ‘Zaofengzui’ Shandong • Shorter growth period of 85d. Fruit nearly round, diameter 3.0 × 2.9 cm, average fruit weight 12.1 g, max 16.3 g, fruit size uniform, • Peel think and crisp, �eshy texture and delicate, juicy, • Wide adaptability and strong resistance to anthracnose, ulcer disease, black spot disease rate of less than 3%, rot disease rate of 6%; ‘Zaoshulizao’ Hebei • Larger oval or pear-shaped fruit, diameter 3.5 × 3.2 cm, Aver- age fruit weight 17.8 g, max 27 g, • Peel is thin, reddish brown, �esh thick, green white or milky white, crisp, juicy, sweet, slightly sour, • High and stable yield, no cracking and good quality fruit, • Early results of plastic greenhouse cultivation show average yields of 1.7 kg in the second year, 3.9 kg in the third year and 5.0 kg in the fourth year. 5) World distribution (Liu, 2010; Johnstone, 2017) Region Country Asia Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bengla, Burma, China, Cyprus, India, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Japan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mongolia, Pakistan, Palestine, South Korea, Syria, �ailand, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Europe Bulgaria, England, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Czech, Macedonia, Portugal, Ro- mania, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Ukraine, Yugoslavia Africa Egypt, Tanzania, Tunisia North America Canada, USA Oceania Australia, New Zealand 6) Cultivars in Australia (Johnstone, 2014) Cultivar name Use Characteristics ‘Li’ fresh Large, mid-season ripening ‘Chico’ fresh Fruit is round but �attened, excellent fresh fruit with a apple-like sweet-acid taste, good either fresh or dried, mid-late season ripening ‘Shanxi-Li’ fresh Very large fruit ‘GA866’ fresh Sweet fruit with a higher sugar level, large and elongated fruit ‘Redlands’ fresh Very large, sweet, round fruit and mid-season ripening ‘Silverhill’ fresh Med-large, elongated fruit, very sweet, very late season ripening, good for humid areas ‘Sherwood’ fresh, dried Fruit is very dense and excellent quality, late season ‘Honeyjar’ fresh, dried Small but very unique, sweet tasting, crunchy, juicy fruit, very thin- skinned, early ripening, considered a fresh eating jujube but also good dried ‘Sihong’ fresh, dried, processed Excellent, large, round fruit, mid-season ripening, one of the best fresh varieties, also good processed or dried ‘Suimen’/’Shuimen’ fresh, dried, processed Fruit is elongated, Fairly good fresh but better dried or processed, Mid-season ripening ‘Lang’ dried, pro- cessed Large, pear-shaped fruit, Mid-late ripening, Good variety for dried fruit, very good for processing, Not suited for humid areas, �e tree is very upright and virtually thorn-less ‘Don-polenski’ dried Similar to Lang with a better, crisper �avour ‘�ornless’ dried Fruit similar to Lang ‘Admiral Wilkes’ dried, pro- cessed Elongated and very late ripening, Best processed or dried 215 7) Current cultivars in the USA (Yao, 2013) Sources Cultivar names F.N. Meyer ,s collection ‘Li’, ‘Lanf’, ‘Shui men’ (Shuimen, Sui men or Sui), ‘Mu/Mu shing hong’, ‘So’, ‘Yu’ Chico breeding program ‘GA866’, ‘GI-7-62/Chico’, ‘GI-1183’, ‘Thornless’ Cultivars from across the United States Alabama ‘Silverhil’l, ‘Ed Hegard’, ‘Swobada’ California ‘Don Polenski’, ‘Jin’, ‘Porterville’, ‘Redland #4’, ‘Sugarcane’ Georgia ‘Fitzgerald’, ‘Leon Burk’, ‘Prine’ Florida ‘Geant’ Kansas ‘Topeka’ Kentucky ‘Priest’ Louisiana ‘Abbeville’, ‘Sherwood’ Pennsylvania ‘Tsao’ Tennessee ‘R3T1’ Texas ‘Texas Tart’ Washington, DC ‘Admiral Wilkes’ Imports after the 1990s R. Meyer ,s import ‘Shanxi Li’, ‘Honeyjar’, ‘Globe’, ‘September Late’, ‘Ant Admire’, ‘Sihong’ J. Gilbert ,s import ‘Qiyuexian’/’Autumn Beauty’, ‘Mango Dong Zho’/’Winter De- lightTM’, ‘Black SeaTM’, ‘CocoTM’, etc. NMSU Alcalde ,s import ‘Jinsi #2’, ‘Jinsi #3’, ‘Pitless’, ‘Junzao’, ‘Teapot’, etc., with total of 30 cultivars. 8) Disease resistant cultivars (Liu et al., 2013) Fruit cracking resistant: ‘Chuanlingzao’, ‘Chenwudongzao’, ‘Chahuzao’, ‘Mopanzao’, ‘Jianzao’, ‘Guantan- zao’, ‘Xuezao’, ‘Huluchanghong’, ‘Hebeilongxuzao’, ‘Baodeyouzao’; Fruit shrink resistant: ‘Chuanlingzao’, ‘Chengwudongzao’, ‘Changjixinzao’, ‘Suyuanling’, ‘Ningyangli- uyuexian’, ‘Kongfusucuizao’, ‘Pingguozao’. 9) �e major chemical components of jujube (Liu, 2010; Gao, et al., 2013; Chen et al., 2017; Cosmulescu et al., 2017; Shahrajabian et al., 2019c) a) carbohydrate such as: glucose, fructose, sucrose, rhamnose, and sorbitol; b) vitamin, especially vita- min C and vitamin B complex; c) fatty acids such as: oleic, linoleic (omega-6), palmitic and palmitoleic acids; d) alkaloids, the cyclic peptide alkaloids, mauritine A, mucronine D, amphibine H, nummularine A-B, sativanine A-H, and –K, frangulanine, jubanine A-C, scutianine C-D and ziziphine A (were isolated from stem bark of jujube), the alkaloids coclaurine, isoboldine, norisoboldine, asimilobine, iusiphine and iusirine (were isolated from leaves), e) glycosides: �avonoid glycosides/spinosins, glycosides/saponins; f ) terpenoids, such as colubrinic acid, alphitolic acid, 3-Ocis-p-coumaroylalphitolic acid, 3-O-transpcou- maroylalphitolic acid, 3-O-cis-p-coumaroylmaslinic acid, 3-O-trans-pcoumaroylmaslinic acid, oleanolic acid, betulonic acid, oleanonic acid, zizyberenalic acid, betulinic acid, zizyberanal acid, zizyberanone, zizyberanalic acid and ursolic acid. C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine M oh am ad H es am S ha hr aj ab ia n, W en li S un , Q i C he ng 216 Tab. 2. Selected characteristics of Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) (Shahrajabian et al., 2019c) 1) Local names of Indian jujube (Morton, 1987; Ved et al., 2016) Amharid: Kurkura; Arabic: Nabak (fruit), sidr; Bengali: Ber, boroi, kool, ber, boroi; Burmese: Zee-pen, zizidaw, eng-si; English: Dunks, jujube, Indian cherry, Indian jujube, Indian plum, geb, ber, common jujube, Chinese date, Chinese apple, bear tree, desert apple; Filipino: Manzanita; French: Jujube, jujubier, jujubier commun, le jujubier, le jujubier sauvage, liane croc-chien; German: Indischer Jujubenstrauch; Gujarati: Bordi; Hindi: Baer, badari, elladu, ber, khati, jelachi; Indonesian: Widara, dara, bidara; Khmer: Putrea; Lao: Sino-Tibetan; Malay: Bidara, jujub, epal siam; Mandinka: Tomborongo, tomboron mous- sana, toboro; Nepali: Bayer; Sanskrit: Kuvala, karkandhu, badara, ajapriya, madhuraphala; Somali: Geb, gub; Spanish: Yuuba, Ponsere, perita haitiana; Swahili: Mkunazi; Tamil: Elandai, yellande; �ai: Ma thong, ma tan, phutsan; Tigrigna: Geva; Trade name: Jujube; Urdu: Ber; Vietnamese: Tao nhuc, tao. 2) List and origin of 37 cultivars in India – cultivar name and state (Singh et al., 2017) 1.‘BC-1’ – Rajasthan, 2.‘Umran’ – Maharashtra, 3. ‘Seb’ – Rajasthan, 4. ‘Illaichi’ – Punjab, 5. ‘Tikadi’ – Ra- jasthan, 6. ‘Gola’ – Haryana, 7.‘Reshmi’ – Haryana, 8.‘CAZRI-Gola’ – Rajasthan, 9.‘Banarasi Karaka’ – Ut- tar Pradesh, 10.‘Aliganj’ – Uttar Pradesh, 11.‘Katha’ – Rajasthan, 12.‘Z-G-3’ – Punjab, 13.‘Mundia’ – Har- yana, 14.‘Bagwadi’ – Punjab, 15.‘Maharwali’ – Rajasthan, 16.‘Banarasi Pebandi’ – Uttar Pradesh, 17.‘S x K hybrid’ – Rajasthan, 18.‘Sanaur-5’ – Haryana, 19.‘�oronless’ – Punjab, 20.‘Kali’ – Rajasthan, 21.‘Jogia’ – Rajasthan, 22.‘Kaithli’ – Haryana, 23.‘Chhuhara’ – Maharashtra, 24.‘Dandan’ – Punjab, 25.‘Gola Gurgaon’ – Haryana, 26.‘Chonchal’ – Haryana, 27.‘Popular Gols’ – Haryana, 28.‘Akrota’ – Haryana, 29.‘Laddu’ – Uttar Pradesh, 30.‘�ar Bhubraj’ – Rajasthan, 31.‘Ponda’ – Haryana, 32.‘Wilayati’ – Punjab, 33.‘�ar Sevi- ka’ – Rajasthan, 34.‘Narikeli’ – West Bengal, 35.‘Sua’ – Haryana, 36.‘Vikas’ – Gujarat, 37.‘Babu’ – Gujarat. 217 Appendix 2 Fig. 4. Structures for chemical compounds in jujube having potential neuroprotection e�ect. Sev- en chemical markers found in jujube including kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside, quercetin 3-O-rutinoside, (-)-catechin, (-)-epicatechin, swertish, spinosin, and cAMP were reported to possess e�ect on neuropro- tection (Chen et al., 2017) C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine M oh am ad H es am S ha hr aj ab ia n, W en li S un , Q i C he ng 218 Fig. 5. Structures of triterpenic acids, nucleosides and nucleobases as well as saccharides in jujube fruits. (A) – triterpenic acids; (B) – nucleosides and nucleobases; (C) – saccharides (Guo et al., 2015) 219 Jujuba pospolita (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) – obiecujący owoc z tradycyjnej medycyny chińskiej Streszczenie Głożyna pospolita, jujuba pospolita lub chiński daktyl (Zizyphus jujuba Mill.; Rhamnaceae L.), to popularna w wielu częściach świata roślina uprawna. Jej owocem jest jadalny, owalny pestkowiec, który ma szerokie zastosowanie w  kuchni i  tradycyjnej medycynie. Jujuba jest uprawiana w  regionach o  klimacie umiarko- wanym, podczas gdy podobna do niej głożyna omszona (Z. mauritiana Lam.) jest uprawiana w gorących i suchych regionach Indii. Największym producentem owoców jujuby na świecie są Chiny, choć w ostatnim czasie zauważalny jest wzrost zainteresowania produkcją tego owocu w innych częściach świata. Owoc ju- juby zawiera 23 rodzaje aminokwasów, których nie ma w większości innych owoców. Zawiera również wi- taminę C, rybo�awinę i tiaminę. Główne składniki owoców jujuby są używane w połączeniu z innymi rośli- nami i owocami leczniczymi w tradycyjnej medycynie chińskiej. Liść jujuby, który jest głównym produktem ubocznym, był również używany w celach leczniczych od tysięcy lat. Jujuba ma wiele ważnych właściwości farmakologicznych i można ją uznać za cenne źródło nutraceutyków. Jest rośliną o dużym potencjale lecz- niczym w  leczeniu chorób cywilizacyjnych, takich jak nowotwory, a  także ważnym źródłem składników odżywczych, łatwo dostępnych w biednych regionach świata. Keywords: Chinese dactyl, fruit, jujube, pharmacological science, Traditional Asian Medicine Received: [2020.07.23] Accepted: [2020.09.14] C hinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba M ill.) – a prom ising fruit from Traditional C hinese M edicine