Annals of Geophysics, 55 (3), 2012: CRESCIMBENE et al
The science of rumors
Massimo Crescimbene*, Federica La Longa, Tiziana Lanza
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
ANNALS OF GEOPHYSICS, 55, 3, 2012; doi: 10.4401/ag-5538
“Every rumor has its audience”
Gordon Allport e Leo Postman
The Psychology of Rumor
ABSTRACT
This study takes a soft scientific cut to talks about rumors, hoaxes and
urban legends. Social psychology, more elegantly, uses the latin word
rumor (rumour in British English), which means sound, voice, or gossip.
In social, economical, political, cultural and scientific communication,
rumors indicate news that is presumed true, that circulates without
being confirmed or made evident. The scientific history of rumors is
briefly described starting from the period of ancient Rome, throughout
the Second World War and the Internet era, up to today. We will try
to answer some questions that can be useful to scientists today. What
are rumors? How are they born? How do they spread? By which laws
are they regulated? How do we need to fight them? A final question
regards the collocation of rumors into modern science. Science today is
divided into ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ science (the latter of which generally lacks
a basic mathematical structure); these terms, respectively, indicate the
natural sciences, which investigate Nature, and the social/human
sciences, which investigate man in all his facets. Maybe rumors can be
thought of as a bridge suspended between two banks: those of
‘scientific truth’ and ‘human truth’.
1. Introduction
The history of rumors is as
old as human history. Even in
remote antiquity, rumors, gos-
sip, and hoax were always in cir-
culation – in good or bad faith –
to influence human affairs. The
ancient Romans had a god de-
voted to rumors: the goddess
Fame.1 This goddess was repre-
sented as a woman always in
motion, constantly shouting
and spreading good and bad
news. Young and impetuous, she was often pictured with
wings covered with eyes, mouths and tongues, in the act of
playing a trumpet or two, one for truth, the other for lies.
This winged monster allegorically represented rumors that
arise, spread, gain credibility, do not distinguish between
truth and falsity, and amplify and distort the facts at will.2
Let us now give an example of what a rumor is and
what effects it can produce. On October 30, 1938, the
radio drama The War of the Worlds was broadcast from the
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) studios in the
U.S.A., starring by Orson Welles and based on the science
fiction novel by Herbert George Wells.3 This program be-
came famous, as it triggered panic by describing an alien
invasion. Despite notices sent out before and after the pro-
gram, many radio listeners did not realizing that it was fic-
tion, and they believed that the landing of hostile aliens in
U.S.A. territory was really happening. Indeed, the adapta-
tion of the novel simulated a special newscast that was at
times inserted above the rest of the scheduled radio pro-
grams to provide updates on the landing of the bellicose
Martian spacecraft in the town of Grovers Mill, New Jer-
sey. With these words, Orson Welles described the uproar
that his interpretation had caused: “The size of the reac-
tion was incredible. Six minutes after we aired, the houses
were emptied and the churches were filled, from Nashville
to Minneapolis people raised cry and tore their clothes on
the street. We began to realize, while we were destroying
New Jersey, we had underestimated the extent of the vein
of madness of our America”.
Today with the development of mass media, the rise
of the internet and social networks, rumors are ubiqui-
tous. “Did we really ever go to the moon?”. Higgs boson:
“What has God got to do with it?”. “Harold Camping’s
prophecy about the end of the world today, October 21,
2011, did not come true. Now we have to wait until De-
cember 21, 2012, to see if the prophecy of the Maya will
come true”.
Then to the rumors and prophecies that relate more
closely to the earth sciences and seismology: “On May 11,
2011, there will be a devastating earthquake in Rome. The
prediction of Raffaele Bendandi…”.
Article history
Received December 21, 2011; accepted March 20, 2012.
Subject classification:
Rumor, Communication, Social psychology, Urban legends.
421
2. Epistemological digression
Talking about rumors puts us ahead of some philo-
sophical questions regarding epistemology. Epistemology
is derived from epistème (certain knowledge, science) and
logos (discourse). In a narrower sense, epistemology is
identified with the philosophy of science, which deals
with the fundamentals of the various scientific disciplines.
In ancient philosophy, the term dòxa (opinion) was used
to indicate an uncertain knowledge. Plato, in the fifth
book of the Republic, reports the words of Socrates: “Sci-
ence and opinion are not tangible things, but forms of dy-
namis, that is, faculty or potential”.
The problem, therefore, is a problem of demarcation
between what is science and what is not, or the difficulty to
distinguish science from pseudo-science and religion. If we
try to exemplify these brief epistemological notes, we are
faced with some questions. Is truth closer to science or to
what people believe? How can we approach scientific
truth? Can scientific truth be established by the scientific
community on the basis of a majority? And then, how
should minorities and voices of dissent be considered?4
While rumors express common opinion (doxa), what
should science do to combat against rumors?
3. Scientific studies on rumors
In 1940, in America, rumors about World War II
began to spread. The U.S. government was worried about
these rumors, as there was a risk that they would affect
the social unit of the United States before they entered the
war (the U.S.A. entered World War II on December 8,
1941). To fight rumors that were deemed dangerous to civil
morality and national security, the U.S. government decided
to set up institutional committees; at the same time, social
scientists began to study the phenomenon of rumors.
Rumor Clinics were born in America (in Chicago, in
1942) as operating units of a larger project, known as the
Rumor Project, that involved several government agen-
cies and American universities. Using data collected by
the Boston Clinics (1941-1942), every Sunday, the Boston
Herald published the most famous rumors of the week,
where the newspaper dedicated a column of the first page
to dismantling the rumors according to the evidence
from the facts.
After their studies on rumors during the second war,
in 1947, Allport and Postman publish The Psychology of
Rumor. This study is considered by many as a milestone
of social psychology, because this science came from the
universities to become a science that deals with reality.
Allport and Postman [1947] defined rumors as proposi-
tions of faith on specific (or current) topics that pass from
person to person, usually by word of mouth, without any
evidence of their truth. Although rumors are usually
communicated from person to person by word of mouth,
the media have a key role in their spread.5
For Allport and Postman [1947] the basic characteris-
tics of rumors are:
– they are transmitted by word of mouth;
– they provide information about people, events and
conditions;
– they express and meet the emotional needs of the
community.
A crucial aspect in the definition of rumors is the em-
phasis given to their characteristics:
– disclosure (word of mouth, which is amplified by
newspapers and media);
– content (news that is in the public domain, to be
distinguished from private and trivial matters);
– listening (rumor spreads to the community because
it responds to the emotional needs).
According to psychoanalysis, Allport and Postman
[1947] supported the idea that a rumor can respond to a
state of uncertainty through the production of a response,
and that this can have a cathartic effect.6
Robert Knapp, a student of Allport, collected and cat-
egorized rumors, and divided them in three categories
based on their content:
– rumors of impossible dreams (‘pipe-dream rumors’),
which reflect public wishes and expected results;
– ghost rumors and rumors based on fear (‘bogie-
man or fear rumors’), which reflected popular fears and
anxieties;
CRESCIMBENE ET AL.
422
423
– rumors that lead to disagreement (‘wedge-driving
rumors’), which are intended to undermine alliances and
relationships.
Knapp concluded that negative rumors expand more
easily than positive rumors. Jung [1959] proposed a classi-
fication of rumors based primarily on their temporal du-
ration. He distinguished the rumors as ‘ordinary’ and
‘visionary’. For Jung [1959], visionary rumors have a uni-
versal symbolic value and they live a long time. This kind
of rumor that expresses chronic anxiety is detectable in
the archetypal images and the collective fears about the
situation of the world, or in the universal desire for a su-
pernatural power to redeem.
Other authors, such as Festinger [1957] and Prasad
[1935], argued instead that anxiety and fear are supported
and supplied by rumors (e.g. an earthquake in India in
1934). In this interpretation, the function of rumors is pre-
cautionary and to alert against disaster, and they also have
an adaptive function in relation to catastrophic events.
In 2004, Prashant Bordia and Nicholas Di Fonzo pub-
lished an article entitled Problem solving in social interactions
on the internet: rumor as social cognition, where they stated
that transmission of rumors is probably indicative of a
“collective process of interpretation” (sense making). They
reported also that in this process of collective problem
solving, every rumor followed four stages of development:
– introduction of the rumor;
– spontaneous generation of opinions, from where
discussions are created;
– resolution of the problem;
– loss of interest.
In their book Psychology of Rumor, Allport and Postman
[1947] also formulated the basic law of rumor, in which the
strength of the rumor (R) is linked to the importance (i) and
to the degree of ambiguity (a) of the topic, such that:
R ≈ i × a (1)
Finally, according to recent studies, rumor strength is
now considered a complex function of anxiety and un-
certainty that can occur from internal states of individuals
(trait anxiety) or from the outside, as state anxiety, or from
their interactions.
4. How to fight rumors
Fighting rumors is not a simple task. Generally there
are only a few simple pieces of advice that can be issued to
general public, such as:
– Don’t believe information coming from traditional
media and new media;
– Check the sources from where the news came
– Do not consider any source as a-priori authoritative;
– Increase your own basic scientific knowledge;
– Always maintain a genuine scepticism and develop
critical thinking.
To face up to rumors, a number of tools have been
proposed that cover two areas: legislative and communica-
tive-educational. In Italy, from a legislative point of view,
reference is made to Article 21 of the Constitution, which
protects the freedom of the press and free expression of
thought, through any medium of communication. As an
European Union Member State, Italy is obliged to respect
the freedom of the press, as enshrined in the Charter of
Fundamental Rights of the European Union (Art. II-71).
Recently, in many countries, controversy has been
stirred up by some legislative measures that have been en-
acted to defend users from information inaccuracy. A spe-
cific type of these interventions provides what is called a
‘chilling effect’: some rules that make it possible to ‘freeze’
or delete a range of information that is deemed to be in-
correct or inaccurate. In Italy, for example, much contro-
versy has been aroused by the introduction of the
Communications Authority7 (AGCOM) Resolution No.
668/2010 which provides for an ‘erase system’ for websites
suspected of violating copyright rules. Further legislative ex-
amples concern false alarms. In Italy, as in other countries,
this offence is punishable by a fine.8 A false alarm is consid-
ered as an act that triggers emergency procedures without
there being the presence of a real danger, from cases of
small importance, to events of greater social impact.
In terms of seismic risk and announced earthquakes,
it is worth mentioning the case of Garfagnana (Tuscany,
Italy). In 1985, based on predictions made by the Italian
scientific community, Giuseppe Zamberletti, Head of the
Italian Civil Protection, evacuated about 100,000 residents
in an area where an occurrence of an earthquake was said
to be possible. The predicted earthquake did not happen,
and Giuseppe Zamberletti came under inquiry for pro-
cured alarm. In opposition to the case of Garfagnana, we
can consider the events in relation to the earthquake in
L’Aquila (Abruzzo, Italy) on April 6, 2009. Based on the
analysis of the concentrations of radon gas in the area, Gi-
ampaolo Giuliani, a technician at the National Institute of
Nuclear Physics, spread the news around about an earth-
quake that would occur on March 29, 2009, in Sulmona (a
town situated about 80 km from L'Aquila). The earth-
quake at Sulmona did not occur, and Giampaolo Giuliani
received a notification of procured alarm after the Head
of Civil Protection, Guido Bertolaso, had requested for
him to receive “exemplary punishment”.9 A few days later,
the devastating earthquake hit L’Aquila. Up to today, the
trial remains in progress and the Department of Civil Pro-
tection will have to answer for its choices. The members
of the Department of Civil Protection, Major Risks Com-
mittee are accused of multiple manslaughter and serious
personal injury, as they provided reassuring messages to
THE SCIENCE OF RUMORS
the public six days before the earthquake occurred. Be-
yond the idea that the courts do not seem to be the most
appropriate place to discuss problems of such relevant sci-
entific and social impact, this theme of prediction versus
unjustified alarm has generated vibrant scientific debate
in Italy and abroad, which is still going on [see, for exam-
ple, Hall 2011].
As regards the area of communication-education,
the fight against rumors involves: communication, popu-
larizing science and science education. Scientific commu-
nication is defined as the kind of information published
by journals dedicated to the scientific community (a fa-
mous example is Nature), while using the expression of
the ‘popularizing of science’ when what is meant is the
spread of scientific knowledge to the general public. This
is carried out in Italy by magazines such as The Sciences,
television programs such as Quark, and internet sites like
MolecularLab.
An article to be published in a scientific journal must
pass a series of steps to assess its reliability, the validity of
the research, and the expertise of the authors, among
other aspects. So how can it be that prestigious scientific
journals can publish errors such as the discovery of cold
fusion.10 For reasons still not entirely clear, Fleischmann
and Pons held a press conference on March 23, 1989, be-
fore their research was to be published by a scientific jour-
nal. The publication was released on 10 April, 1989, as a
short article written for the Journal of Electroanalytical
Chemistry [Fleischmann et al. 1989]. The article, in the
opinion of many scientists, was written in haste and was in-
complete, and it contained some substantial errors in the
measurements of the emission of gamma rays.
Therefore, it would seem that rumors cannot be ef-
fectively fought by the journals that deal specifically in the
science, and this is also true for magazines, newspapers and
the internet, which all contribute to the public under-
standing of science. Generally, in Italy, and it seems true
for others European countries too,11 journalists who deal
with science do not have full scientific training, and this
often leads to inaccurate scientific information that is of-
fered to the public in a superficial and inappropriate way,
and which is sometimes totally incorrect.
5. Conclusions
In our opinion, to combat rumors and to disseminate
accurate scientific information, we should go in two di-
rections: on the one hand, there must be the promotion of
quality science journalism, by trained journalists in differ-
ent fields; on the other hand, scientists must be trained to
engage in communication and dissemination of scientific
information.
A further consideration relates to science education.
We note that the assumptions themselves of a science ed-
ucation are often misleading and incorrect. Science is
often taught at schools as a dogmatic ‘truth’. School pro-
grams do not provide epistemological training to develop
observation, phenomenological approaches, and critical
thinking. An example of a phenomenological scientific ap-
proach12 has been developed by the EDURISK Project13
(Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia; INGV,
Italy) over 10 years of activity. It is an educational project
to reduce seismic and volcanic risk in Italy, and it is pro-
posed to Italian teachers as a multidisciplinary method,
and with a strong phenomenological approach. The
themes of seismic and volcanic risk can be explored
through a variety of disciplines, ranging from history to
literature, from religion to mathematics and engineering,
and from psychology to natural sciences, geology and
physics. This approach initially disorients teachers that ex-
pect truths and certainties by the INGV researchers. In-
stead, our approach proposes a path to knowledge that is
built together, teachers, students and researchers.14
In conclusion we emphasize that the most effective
response to combat rumors is to encourage a process of
science education, ever more wider and open to the pub-
lic, accepting the challenge of bringing reliability, accu-
racy and depth of science to the popularization of science.
In this direction, we are supported by the thoughts
of Italian philosopher Giulio Giorello:
“We believe that scientific truth is nothing but a state-
ment that somehow we can control and that can also be
discarded and replaced by another, which allows us to bet-
ter understand the experiences we have, the observations
that are recorded. In this sense, what we care about is not
so much the possession of something, but the tension, the
effort we make. What I have checked, you can also check,
because - as rightly said by Galileo, Descartes, Pascal, and
all the great founders of modern science - any person who
is able to understand and desire, and who will apply this,
is able to make and control the experience. Science is pub-
lic and verifiable by everyone. If it is controllable and pub-
lic, it is also teachable”.15
In our opinion, Giorello’s words emphasize four main
points that relate to science and how science is studied:
(1) the guarantee of scientific data objectivity, that to
maintain such, it must always be clearly identified, sepa-
rated from the processing and interpretation of what was
done, so it can be taken and checked by other researchers,
and therefore there is the importance of repeatability of
scientific experience;
(2) the importance of calling into question acquired
scientific truths, so that science really aims at arriving at
the ‘truth’;
(3) the importance of knowing how to teach science,
not as dogmatic truth, but as a cognitive process that starts
from experience, observes a phenomenon, questions its
CRESCIMBENE ET AL.
424
425
mechanisms, its meaning, and the relationships between
its parts, and verifies that its learnings are useful to explain
observed phenomena;
(4) the human dimension of science, both in an indi-
vidual sense as science made by man and therefore falla-
cious and characterized by human experience, and as a
collective process of knowledge that in order to be such
must be of all.
Notes
1. Fame (derived from the Latin fari, which means to speak) was a deity
as the allegorical personification of rumor in Roman mythology.
Virgilio speaks of her personification created by the Earth after Ceo
and Encelado. Literally translated, the Latin phrase Fama volat
means that fame [the news] flies. (Virgilio, Eneide, III, 121).
2. Ovidio gives a broad description in the XII book of the
Metamorphoses.
3. The War of the Worlds, published in London in 1898, is considered
one of the first novels of science fiction.
4. Critics of the thoughts of Popper say that science would not have
progressed without the minorities and ‘dissidents’.
5. For example, the great cabbage hoax, [Hall 1965, 1977].
6. Allport and Postman [1947] refer to Freud’s psychoanalytic model
of emotions. This is a hydraulic model, emotions (internal) find a
way (acceptable) to be expelled, and act on the internal tension.
7. The Communications Regulatory Authority is an independent
authority, established by Law n. 249 of July 31, 1997. Independence
and autonomy are elements that characterize its activities and
deliberations.
8. According to Article 658 of the Penal Code.
9. On December 22, 2009, the court of Sulmona acquitted Giuliani of
the accusation of procured alarm in connection with the March
29, 2009 events.
10. Cold fusion was suddenly in the spotlight on March 23, 1989, when
chemists Martin Fleischmann of Southampton University in
England, and Stanley Pons of the University of Utah in the USA,
announced to the press that they had achieved it.
11. See, for example, Verhoeven 2010.
12. For a phenomenological perspective of the educational event, see
for example Pezzella 2007.
13. The EDURISK project was proposed in 1999 at the National Group
for Earthquakes Defense (GNDT) of CNR, merged in 2001 in the
INGV. The project was conducted from 2002 to 2006 and then from
2008 to 2009. For more information see: Sintesi dei lavori del
Workshop EDURISK 2002-2011: 10 anni di progetti di educazione al
rischio – Roma, 30 Novembre 2011, edited by Vera Pessina and
Romano Camassi, Miscellanea INGV, 13, 2012; available at: http://
istituto.ingv.it/l-ingv/produzione-scientifica/miscellanea-ingv/.
14. For educational programs fulfilled in the project see the website:
www.edurisk.it.
15. Il Grillo (11/12/1997): Giulio Giorello, La verità scientifica, In:
Enciclopedia Multimediale delle Scienze Filosofiche, Rai
Educational, http://www.emsf.rai.it/grillo/archivio.asp.
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*Corresponding author: Massimo Crescimbene,
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy;
email: massimo.crescimbene@ingv.it.
© 2012 by the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia. All
rights reserved.
THE SCIENCE OF RUMORS
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/ENU (Use these settings to create PDF documents with higher image resolution for high quality pre-press printing. The PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Reader 5.0 and later. These settings require font embedding.)
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/ITA <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>
>>
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [595.000 842.000]
>> setpagedevice