AN N ALS OF GEOPH YSICS, 60, FAST TRACK 7, 2017; DOI: 10.4401/ A G-7558 1 The Social Sense of Geological Literacy H ÉCTOR LUIS LACREU Dep artam en to d e Geología, Un iversid ad N acion al d e San Lu is, Argen tin a lacreu @gm ail.com Abstract W ays and methodologies to teach geology are widely debated and are frequent topics in geoscientific discussion, whereas there is much less attention to the subject of geological literacy. It is more and more frequent to hear complaints by un i- versity teachers regarding the deficient geological knowledge of incoming university students, and this is especially the case in A rgentina’s universities. Teachers simply characterize the problem affirming: “the students do not know an y- thing about geology” or “in high school nobody taught them geology”. A dditionally, most geologists consider that it is not their problem and consider secondary teachers as uniquely responsible. N evertheless, the matter is more complicated than this and deserves a different approach for resolution. In this contribution I table reflections on the need to address the lack of preparation and the scarcity of geological knowledge in terms of geological literacy, rather than in terms of teaching geology. 1. IN TROD UCTION n ad equ ate geological kn ow led ge n ot on ly affects stu d en ts in u n iversities, bu t also th e m ajority of citizen s w h o fin ish th eir sec- on d ary stu d ies w ith ou t h avin g learn ed an y basic geological n otion s. Th e m ost w orrisom e asp ect in th is situ ation is th at th is ign oran ce also ch aracterizes p olitician s, tech n ician s, jou r- n alists an d scien ce com m u n icators, w h o act an d give op in ion s on n atu ral resou rces an d en - viron m en tal p roblem s, w ith ou t an y com p r e- h en sion as to cau ses an d effects of th e issu es, th ereby con tribu tin g to th e in crease in con fu - sion in th e p u blic. For too m an y years, th e sam e op in ion s on th is m atter h ave been rep eated , by u sin g tw o key con cep ts, “kn ow led ge” an d “teach in g”, an d by om ittin g th e con cep t of “learn in g”, w h ile th e th ree con cep ts sh ou ld be all con sid ered sim u l- tan eou sly w ith in th e fram ew ork of th e real con d ition s in w h ich th ey in teract. With ou t d ou bt th ere are efforts to im p rove th is state of affairs, bu t for th e sake of brevity I w ill m ake som e gen eralization s, th at in som e cases m ay seem im p rop er an d in correct. Th erefore, m y ap ologies for th ose w h o w ill feel sligh ted an d m y en cou ragem en t to th em to sp read th eir ach ievem en ts th rou gh p u blication s th at are a c- cessible to ed u cators. Im p rovin g teach in g of geology requ ires an a d - equ ate ch aracterization of th e p roblem , by fo- cu sin g on th e sen se of geological learn in g an d kn ow led ge. Th is rep resen ts a great ch allen ge for th e geological com m u n ity, both in term s of u n d erstan d in g th e con cep t of geological liter a- cy an d in term s of in terven tion w ith con crete action s in p rim ary, secon d ary an d u n iversity stu d ies. An oth er ch allen ge is to im p rove th e ap p roach to th e p roblem , given th e com p lexity to in ter- ven e in th ese d om ain s, th e lack of in d ivid u als w h o are exp ert in th e su bject, th e con flicts of in terests an d th e resistan ce of som e teach ers to in trod u ce ch an ges in th eir u su al p ractices. In th at sen se, w e cou ld list oth er ch allen ges, bu t I w ill d o so later, after a few reflection s on scien tific literacy in gen eral an d geological lit- eracy in p articu lar . 2. SOME N OTION S ON SCIEN TIFIC LITERACY Th e term “literacy” w as first u sed in th e late n in eteen th cen tu ry to in d icate th e cap ability to read an d w rite. It is on e of th ose self-d efin in g term s, su ch as “freed om ”, “ju stice”, “h ap p i- n ess”, w h ich w e in corp orate in ou r cu ltu re for th eir con ten t, n eed ed qu alities an d d esirable attribu tes (Braslavsky, 2003). Sin ce th en , th e I AN N ALS OF GEOPH YSICS, 60, FAST TRACK 7, 2017; DOI: 10.4401/ A G-7558 2 term “literacy” h as been rep h rased an d a con - sen su s h as been bu ilt on th e m ean in g of Scie n - tific an d Tech n ological Literacy (ACT in Sp a n - ish ). It “d esign ates a typ e of kn ow led ge, skills or com p eten ces th at in ou r tech n ical-scien tific w orld corresp on d to w h at literacy w as in th e last cen tu ry” (Fou rez, 1997: 15). In ad d ition , th e term “literacy” p rop itiates a m ore com p lex cu l- tu re th at gives valu e to both th e p ertin en ce an d th e ad equ ate u se of kn ow led ge as an eth ical com m itm en t to reflect on the social an d p olit i- cal con sequ en ces of its ap p lication . With in th is orien tation , it h as been p oin ted ou t th at “given th e com p lexity of p resen t an d fu - tu re global ch allen ges, h igh er ed u cation h as th e social resp on sibility to ad van ce ou r u n d e r- stan d in g of m u ltifaceted p roblem s th at im p ly social, econ om ic, scien tific an d cu ltu ral asp ects, as w ell as ou r cap ability of ad d ressin g th em . H igh er ed u cation sh ou ld take on social lead e r- sh ip in global kn ow led ge-bu ild in g to ad d ress global ch allen ges, in clu d in g food secu rity, cli- m ate ch an ge, w ater m an agem en t, in tercu ltu ral d ialogu e, ren ew able en ergy an d p u blic h ealth ” (UN ESCO, 2009). As a resu lt, w e can assu m e th at scien tific liter a- cy is n ecessary to im p rove th e qu ality of citizen p articip ation in d ecision -m akin g, in econ om ic p olicies d evelop ed in d ifferen t sectors (fo r ex- am p le: legislative p rojects at m u n icip al, p r o- vin cial an d / or n ation al scale), as w ell as in th e p u blic h earin gs con ven ed w h en w orks th at h ave an im p act on th e en viron m en t are carried ou t. Su ch tim ely an d relevan t p articip ation r e- qu ires from “citizen s m ore th an a very h igh level of kn ow led ge, th e lin kin g of a m in im u m of sp ecific kn ow led ge, p erfectly accessible to citizen s, w ith global ap p roach es an d eth ical con sid eration s th at d on ’t requ ire an y sp eciali- zation .” (Gil y Vilch es, 2003). 3. D IMEN SION S OF GEOLOGICAL LITERACY Geological literacy is a m u ltid im en sion al ch a l- len ge an d requ ires n ew cu rricu lar p rop osals overcom in g trad ition al teach in g, restricted o n - ly to con cep tu al an d m eth od ological geological con ten ts. In th is sen se, it is recom m en d ed to in corp orate oth er d im en sion s su ch as th e h ist o- ry of geological id eas, ep istem ology, th e n atu re of geology, sp ecific tech n iqu es an d m eth od s, p rofession al p ractices, an d th eir role in p erso n - al an d social life (ad ap ted from Bybee, 1997; qu oted in Gil-Pérez et al., 2005). In th is ap p roach , it can be p oin ted ou t th at ge o- logical cu rricu la for all th e citizen s sh ou ld h ave th e follow in g com m on elem en ts (ad ap ted from Marco, 2000):  Practical geological literacy th at allow s u s to m ake u se of geological kn ow led ge in d aily life, in ord er to im p rove liv in g con d ition s, as w ell as featu res, n atu ral resou rces an d risks of ou r en viron m en t.  Civic geological literacy, so th at all p eop le can socially in terven e in p olit ical d ecision s w ith d ifferen t criteria, in clu d in g eth ical an d scien tific criteria.  Cu ltu ral geological literacy th at d ebates th e m ean in g of scien ce an d tech n ology an d th eir im p act on th e social stru ctu re . In sh ort, geological literacy in a broad sen se sh ou ld in tegrate p ractical literacy, civic literacy an d cu ltu ral literacy for citizen s in gen eral. 4. GEOLOGICAL LITERACY IN ED UCATION AL LEVELS Th e ch an ge from “geological teach in g” to “ge o- logical literacy” im p lies both an exp an sion of con ten t an d a n ew ap p roach , cen tered on lear n - in g, in w h ich th e con cep ts red u ce th eir trad i- tion al role, to sh are it w ith skills an d attitu d es in th e u se of su ch con cep ts. Th is ap p roach r e- qu ires n ew d id actics, ap p rop riate to each ed u - cation al level, to th e “geological h orizon ” th at su rrou n d s each in stitu tion , to th e resou rces available, an d so on . All th ese elem en ts con fig- u re a set of sp ecific n eed s th at are su bjects of stu d y, creation an d research of a n ew d iscip li- n ary field called th e “Geolod actics” (Lacreu , 2012). In th e social im agin ary, in th e gen eral ed u ca- tion al regu lation s an d in th e sp ecific cu rricu lar m od els, it is exp ected th at p re-u n iversity ed u - cation sh ou ld be aim ed at train in g citizen s, sim u ltan eou sly train in g for w ork in sertion an d p rop aed eu tic train in g. In Argen tin a, w ith regard s to th e p rim ary level of ed u cation , it is p erceived th a t “p ractical geo- AN N ALS OF GEOPH YSICS, 60, FAST TRACK 7, 2017; DOI: 10.4401/ A G-7558 3 logical literacy” in clu d es su fficien t geological con ten ts. H ow ever, sequ en cin g an d grad u ality are con sid ered in ad equ ate, w h ereas d id actic strategies often ign ore field w ork an d th e CTS ap p roach (Lacreu , 2015). On th e oth er h an d , in th e Argen tin e secon d ary ed u cation al level, th e geological con ten ts are alm ost n u ll w ith in th e N AP (Priority Learn in g N u cleu s) of N atu ral Scien ces for th e com m on cycle of all h igh sch ools. Th ey are also absen t in m ost of th e orien tated h igh sch ools, excep t for th e orien tation s in “N atu ral Scien ces” an d “En viron m en t”, in w h ich th e n ew sp ecific cu r- ricu lar sp ace of “Earth Scien ces” w as created . H ow ever, it is n ot p ossible to d evelop geolog i- cal con ten ts in d ep th , sin ce th e n ecessary p r e- requ isites d o n ot exist (Lacreu , 2014). In rela- tion to th e secon d ary ed u cation al level, it is im p ortan t to n ote an im p ortan t con tribu tion on Literacy in Earth Scien ces m ad e by a grou p of Sp an ish colleagu es (Ped rin aci et al., 2013) w h o m an aged to syn th esize 5 objectives an d 10 key id eas th at con stitu te an in d isp en sable gu id e to review th e Argen tin e cu rricu la . With referen ce to th e u n iversity level, geology careers offer an ad equ ate h igh er ed u cation in sp ecific geological asp ects, far su rp assin g th e n eed s of “p ractical geological literacy”. H o w - ever, th ere are sh ortcom in gs in “civic geologi- cal literacy” an d “cu ltu ral geological literacy”, save som e excep tion s, th at p ersist th rou gh ou t th e form ative stage, w eaken in g th e in tegral train in g an d , th erefore, th e p rofession al p rofile of geologists, as r equ ired by th e n ew regu la- tion s in force sin ce 2008. Precisely for th is re a- son , I sh are th e great con cern th at exists in th e in tern ation al aren as w h ere th e p roblem of h igh er ed u cation is d iscu ssed . In m y exp erien ce of m ore th an 30 years in u n i- versity teach in g, in d ivu lgation activities an d train in g of teach ers I h ave been able to w itn ess th e in su fficien t literacy of u n iversity asp iran ts. In d eed , th is is m an ifested in th e scarce geolog i- cal an d m ath em atical kn ow led ge an d in a n o- table d eficit in th e cap ability of read in g- com p reh en sion as w ell as in com m u n icative com p eten cies. For th ese reason s, th e n ation al u n iversities ad op ted su p p ort p olicies to rein - force su ch in stru m en tal skills an d to red u ce th e n u m ber of stu d en ts th at d rop ou t. In ad d ition , geology cou rses in clu d e su bjects su ch as “In - trod u ction to Geology” an d cou rses on read in g, com p reh en sion an d w ritin g of scien tific texts, as a w ay of com p en satin g for th e d eficit in th e “p ractical geological literacy” of en tran ts. Un fortu n ately, th ere are n o kn ow n m ech a- n ism s th at attem p t to revert th e in su fficien t cul- tural literacy, referrin g to th e h istorical, ep ist e- m ological an d m eth od ological asp ects of geo l- ogy, as w ell as th e d eficit in citizen literacy, w h ich is reflected in th e d ifficu lties to id en tify m ain an d secon d ary cau ses, or to recogn ize eth ical con flicts in p rofession al p ractices, or to exp ress on e's ow n id eas, takin g in to accou n t d ifferen t p oin ts of view . In sh ort, I con sid er th at su ch com p eten cies lim it th e in d ivid u als to fu lly an d actively p articip ate in civ ic life. Fin ally, a balan ce cou ld be created : ju st as w e w on d ered abou t th e scien tific geological liter a- cy of citizen s, w e sh ou ld also w on d er abou t th e scien tific literacy of th e scien tists. Th is ap p a r- en t p lay on w ord s refers to th e con cep t of lite r- acy as a m etap h or for th e in tegral train in g of citizen s th at w e h ave alread y con sid ered as in - su fficien t. Th is is w h y w e can form u late som e rh etorical qu estion s th at cou ld h elp to th in k th e ch allen ges of th e 21st cen tu ry :  W hy do the national universities and the na- tional geology curricula not address the short- comings in “civic” and “cultural” literacy, with the same dedication they have to overcoming practical literacy?  How much better would be the training of geol- ogists, how much better and more ethical could their professional practices and contributions to sustainable development be, if the dimensions of “civic” and “cultural” literacy were explicitly and formally incorporated in the curricula? Th e an sw ers to th e above qu estion s an d th eir p ractical d evelop m en t w ill rem ain p en d in g. H ow ever, som e reflection s an d p rop osals are sh ared on som e of th e ch allen ges th at I believe w ill h ave to be assu m ed w ith in th e d iscip lin ary field of geology, w h ile in teractin g w ith oth er d iscip lin ary field s. Th e in teraction betw een “ge olod acts”, teach ers, acad em ic au th orities an d p rovin cial an d n a- tion al p olitical officers w ill be essen tial to im - p rove geological literacy in p rim ary, secon d ary an d h igh er ed u cation , in keep in g w ith th e AN N ALS OF GEOPH YSICS, 60, FAST TRACK 7, 2017; DOI: 10.4401/ A G-7558 4 com p lexity th at is en visaged for th e 21 st cen tu - ry. 5. CON CLUSION : SOME CHALLEN GES 5.1 Creating favorable instances for the deve l- opment of geolodactics Th e scarce geological train in g of p re -u n iversity teach ers an d th e lack of geolod actic resou rces often gen erate a certain d egree of in secu rity an d fear for teach in g geology. Th u s, it is im - p ossible to m otivate stu d en ts. Th is is a seriou s p roblem w h ose ap p roach requ ires a n u m ber of sp ecialists in geolod actics in a greater n u m ber th an cu rren tly exists in Argen tin a. Con sequ en t- ly, th e n ation al u n iversities h ave th e social an d p olitical resp on sibility to fav or th e creation an d d evelop m en t of geological research cen ters, as w ell as to in corp orate research ers w ith exclu - sive d ed ication , from geology to p ed agogy (Lacreu , 2107a). Train in g an d u p d atin g of teach ers is im p er ative to aban d on th e u su al w ay to th in k of teach in g geology an d to rep lace it w ith n ew ap p roach es th at p rom ote geolog i- cally sign ifican t learn in g. In th at sen se, w e m u st w ork on th e d id actic tran sp osition (Lacreu , 1996) an d on th e re-sign ification of ge- ology as a h istorical scien ce. 5.2 Renew ing the teaching of geology by e m- phasizing the character of historical science Prim ary an d secon d ary ed u cation sh ou ld be ren ew ed by in corp oratin g ap p roach es d ifferen t th an u su al. On th e on e h an d , m ean in gfu l lear n - in g sh ou ld be p rom oted th rou gh sch ool r e- search , w ith an d w ith ou t field trip s, p roblem solvin g or case stu d ies. On th e oth er h an d , it is n ecessary to ren ew th e ep istem ological a p - p roach an d to d evelop strategies th at allow on e to u n d erstan d th e h istorical an d in terp retative ch aracter of geology (Frod em an , 1995). It h as lon g been p rop osed th at “geology is a h istorical scien ce of n atu re, becau se it stu d ies n atu ral p rocesses th rou gh form s (fossilized in th e orig- in al) reflected in geological stru ctu res” (Pot a- p ova, 1968). In th is sen se, som e exp erien ces r e- lated to th e con stru ction of th e geological h ist o- ry of lan d scap e can be con sid ered , both th rou gh field w ork (Lacreu , 2007) an d virtu al classroom w ork (Lacreu , 2012b). In th is w ay, attem p ts h ave been m ad e to d elete con cep tu al errors abou t th e im m u tability of relief, its rocks an d stru ctu res an d to p rom ote aw aren ess of th e h u m an im p act on n atu re. Man leaves m arks on th e geological lan d scap e, ju st as n atu ral p r o- cesses of th e p ast h ave left m arks th at w e can see tod ay on th e p resen t lan d scap e. Th e h u m an m arks are of a d ifferen t n atu re, bu t th eir in te n - sity is so stron g as to su ggest th e in trod u ction of a n ew geological ep och : th e An th rop ocen e (Cru tzen , 2002). 5.3 Promoting epistemological coherence in the teaching of the natural sciences N atu ral scien ces can n ot be p rop erly tau gh t if geology is absen t. Th is im p lies th e reform u la- tion of cu rricu la at th e p re-u n iversity level, u n iversity teach in g form ation , an d train in g cou rses in n atu ral scien ces, so th at geology can be in corp orated as an in h eren t d iscip lin e in th is grou p of scien ces. Th is con stitu tes a p olitical d ebt of u n iversity au th orities (an d a ch allen ge for th e geological com m u n ity), th at h as been tolerated by action or om ission . Th is p erm is- siven ess h ap p en s u n d er th e assu m p tion th at it is an ed u cation al p roblem , alien to geology, w ith ou t realizin g th at its resolu tion in evitably requ ires th e com m itted p articip ation of geolo- gists in gen eral an d geolod acts in p articu lar. In th is sen se, in ord er to ach ieve an in tegrative teach in g of th e n atu ral scien ces, it is essen tial to u se th e h istorical ap p roach , to h igh ligh t th e fact th at m an y of th e biological, p h ysical an d ch e m - ical p rocesses occu rred in th e p ast h ave been record ed in geological m aterials, in d ifferen t tim es an d p laces th r ou gh ou t th e h istory of th e Earth . Th ese m aterials h ave u n d ergon e ch an g- es of sh ap e an d p osition an d m an y of th em con tain m in in g resou rces n ecessary for society. Th erefore, th e search for n ew resou rces r e- qu ires th e h istorical recon stru ction of geolog i- cal lan d scap es. 5.4 Promoting epistemological coherence in the teaching of the natural sciences Th e lack of access to civic an d cu ltu ral geolog i- cal literacy, as w ell as th e scarce cap ability of w ritin g an d scien tific com m u n ication , seriou sly AN N ALS OF GEOPH YSICS, 60, FAST TRACK 7, 2017; DOI: 10.4401/ A G-7558 5 th reaten th e ach iev em en t of th e p rofession al p rofile requ ired by n ation al regu lation s (Lacreu , 2017b). Con sequ en tly, cu rricu la sh ou ld recogn ize su ch sh ortcom in gs an d e x- p licitly in corp orate com p en satory strategies. For th is p u rp ose, th e n ation al u n iversities com m itm en t to society sh ou ld be rem em bered : geology h as been d eclared a d iscip lin e of p u b- lic in terest, becau se its p rofession al p ractice can in flu en ce p u blic safety, by p u ttin g risk on h ealth , safety, righ ts, p rop erty or train in g of th e in h abitan ts, as in d icated in th e Arg en tin e regu - lation s. It is n ecessary th at stu d en ts are p r o- gressively train ed accord in g to th e n ation al r e- qu irem en ts of h igh er ed u cation for th e 21st cen tu ry (UN ESCO, 2009), w h ich p articu larly em p h asizes th e n eed for geologists to carry ou t th eir p rofession al activities w ith a sen se of eth i- cal an d social resp on sibility, an d w ith th e com m itm en t to favou r su stain able d evelo p - m en t. 5.5 Contributing to sustainable development and to the clarification of its meaning Bru n d tlan d , in h er first an d valu able rep ort (UN , 1987), p rop oses th at Su stain able Devel- op m en t “is cap able of resp on d in g to th e n eed s of th e p resen t, w ith ou t com p rom isin g th e p o s- sibility of fu tu re gen eration s to satisfy th eir n eed s”. At th e m om en t, it cou ld seem a sed u c- tive bu t som ew h at n aive statem en t . In fact, it d oes n ot sp ecify w h ich social sectors are ben e- ficiaries of th e “n eed s of th e p resen t” an d ca n - n ot an ticip ate w h at th e n eed s of “fu tu re gen e r- ation s” w ill be. Besid es, m ost en viron m en tal p roblem s are th e resu lt of com p an ies th at d e- fin e th em selves as su stain able, bu t too often th ey on ly favor econ om ic grow th to th e d etr i- m en t of social equ ity an d ecological balan ce. Th ese situ ation s requ ire th at geologists are aw are of th e role (p assive or active) th at th ey can p lay in th e creation / solu tion of th ese p rob- lem s (Lacreu , 2017b). REFEREN CES Braslavsky B. (2003). Qu é se entiend e p or alfabe- tización. Lectu ra y Vid a. Año 24, 2:2-17. Bybee R. (1997). Tow ard s an Un d erstan d in g of Scien tific Literacy. In : Graeber W. an d Bolte C. (Ed s), Scien tific Literacy, Kiel. Cru tzen P.J. (2002). Geology of Man kin d . N atu - re, 415(6867), p . 23. Fou rez G. (1997). Alfabetización Cien tífica y tecn ológica. Acerca d e las fin alid ad es d e la en señ an za d e las cien cias, Ed Colih u e, 255p . Frod em an R. (1995). Geological reason in g: G e- ology as an in terp retive an d h istorical sci- en ce. Geological Society of Am erica Bu lle- tin , 107(8):960-968. Gil D. y Vilch es, A. (2003). La con tribu ción d e la cien cia a la cu ltu ra ciu d ad an a. Cu ltu ra y Ed u cación , 16 (3):259-272, Valen cia. Gil Pérez D., Sifred o C., Vald és P. y Vilch es A. (2005). ¿Cu ál es la im p ortan cia d e la ed u ca- ción cien tífica en la socied ad actu al? San tia- go OREALC/ UN ESCO:15-28. Lacreu H .L. (1997). La tran sp osición d id áctica d e las Geocien cias. En señ an za d e las Cie n - cias d e la Tierra, (5.1):37-48. Lacreu H .L. (2007). La historia geológica d el p ai- saje com o contenid o esencial en la enseñanza obligatoria. Alam biqu e, N . 51:76-87. Lacreu H .L. (2012a). Raíces p olíticas d el an alfa- betism o geológico. XVII Sim p osio sobre En - señ an za d e la Geología, Actas:91-99. Lacreu H .L. (2012b). Recu rsos virtu ales p ara la in terp retación geológica d el p aisaje. En - señ an za d e las Cien cias d e la Tierra, Vol. 20.2: 198-202. Lacreu H .L. (2014). Aciertos, d istorsion es y fa- lacias en la en señ an za d e las cien cias n atu - rales d e la ed u cación secu n d aria obligatoria d e Argen tin a. Terræ Did atica 10-3:217-226, Cam p in as, Brasil. Lacreu H .L. (2015). La geología en la ed u cación p rim aria y secu n d aria. IBIGEO, Tem as BGN oa Vol. 5, N ú m . 2:25-28. Lacreu H .L. (2017a). La en señ an za d e la geo- logía en el n ivel p reu n iversitario. Pon en cia en la Mesa red on d a “En señ an za d e la geo- logía” XX CGA, Tu cu m án u n p u blish ed . Lacreu H .L. (2017b). Con secu en cias sociales d e las p rácticas geológicas. Sim p osio Miran d o al Fu tu ro. XX CGA, Tu cu m án . Acta p . 36- 40. Marco B. (2000). La alfabetización cien tífica. En Perales, F. Y Cañ al, P. (Ed s.): Did áctica d e las Cien cias Exp erim en tales,141-164. Alcoi: Marfil. Ped rin aci E., Alcald e S., Alfaro P., Alm od óvar G.R., Barrera J.L., Belm on te A., Bru si D., AN N ALS OF GEOPH YSICS, 60, FAST TRACK 7, 2017; DOI: 10.4401/ A G-7558 6 Calon ge A., Card on a V., Cresp o-Blan c A., Feixas J.C., Fern án d ez-Martín ez E., Gon z á- lez-Díez A., Jim én ez-Millán J., Lóp ez -Ru iz J., Mata-Perelló J.M., Pascu al J.A., Qu in t a- n illa L., Rában o I., Rebollo L., Rod rigo A. y Roqu ero E. (2013). Alfabetización en Cien - cias d e la Tierra. En señ an za d e las Cien cias d e la Tierra, 21.2., 117-129. Potap ov a M.S. (1968). Geologia com o u m a ciên cia h istórica d a n atu reza. Terræ Did at- ica, 3(1):86-90. UN (1987). Rep ort of th e World Com m ission on En viron m en t an d Dev elop m en t: Ou r Com m on Fu tu re. Ch ap ter 2: Tow ard s Su s- tain able Develop m en t, h ttp :/ / w w w .u n - d ocu m en ts.n et/ w ced -ocf.h tm (accessed 21 Febru ary 2018). UN ESCO (2009). La n u eva d in ám ica d e la ed u - cación su p erior y la in vestigación p ara el cam bio social y el d esarrollo. Com u n icad o d e la Con feren cia Mu n d ial d e la UN ESCO, París.. [Figu ered o an d Wolf, 2009] Figu ered o, A. J. an d Wolf, P. S. A. (2009). Assortative p air- in g an d life h istory strategy - a crosscu ltu ral stu d y. H u m an N atu re, 20:317–330. [Figu ered o an d Wolf, 2009] Figu ered o, A. J. an d Wolf, P. S. A. (2009). Assortat ive p air- in g an d life h istory strategy - a crosscu ltu ral stu d y. H u m an N atu re, 20:317–330.