




























25		Annals of Applied Psychophysiology December 2024 Volume 11      
______________________________________________________________________________
Establishment of the Relationship Between Continued Practice of Hatha Yoga and Goal Attainment
Amé Foster1, 
Published online: December 2024
  © The Author(s) 2

Abstract

Background: This original dissertation research explored the understanding as to why novice yoga students terminate participation. This research is important due to the fact that there is limited information and data available within this specific subject matter of yoga practice. 

Methodology: The relationship between continued yoga practice and goal attainment was examined through goal achievement, in addition to psychological inventories and assessments. The research was conducted among eighteen novice yoga participants both male and female.

Results: The main results of the research study quantified the influences of the Hatha yoga intervention calculated through pre-post change scores in the psychological assessments. The outcomes revealed a strong inverse relationship between negative affect and relaxation state; and a moderate inverse relationship between positive affect and relaxation state for the non-drop-out subjects, which included six individuals. Furthermore, the subject goal information established that the type of goals varied between the drop-out and non-drop-out participants. 

Conclusion: The results of this research denote that individuals who develop goals more focused on mood enhancement and relaxation improvement as well as establishing a sense of community tend to continue yoga practice and attend classes in comparison to subjects with goals focused specifically related to only addressing health concerns.

Keywords: Yoga, goal attainment, relaxation, mood and affect, drop-out 






1. Amé Foster   afoster1@saybrook.edu
Saybrook University, Pasadena, CA USA







Introduction
Previous research conducted on Hatha yoga demonstrates that it is indeed a successful psychophysiological intervention. However, the limited amount of data observing the reasoning behind yoga practice cessation is significantly lacking.
This research assessed the relationship between continued yoga practice and goal attainment examined through goal achievement, in addition to examinations of psychological inventories and assessments. This was completed with measurements before and after the intervention period. 
The assessments included Goal Attainment Scaling, the Positive and Negative Affect Scale, the Profile of Mood States Questionnaire, and the RMM (e) Inventory. The objective was to expand the knowledge currently understood between the relationship of yoga attendance and goal achievement as well as psychological and physical changes within the subjects. 

Methodology
Research Method
The information was acquired through a pre-post design model. The subjects included yoga students from two yoga studios in the state of Kansas. The participant inclusion conditions consisted of the following: (a) Subject candidates are at least 18 years of age, (b) Subject candidates are available to participate in an approximately 1-hour yoga session one to two times a week for two months, and (c) Subject candidates are beginners at the practice of yoga. 
The exclusion conditions contained the following: (a) Subject candidates do experience symptoms of a mental health disorder and are not currently seeking treatment by a professional, (b) Subject candidates are not 18 years or older, (c) Subject candidates are not available to participate in an approximately 1-hour yoga session one to two times a week for two months, (d) Subject candidates have previously practiced yoga, and (e) Subject candidates attend a different type of yoga class other than hatha yoga during participation in the study. 
Involvement in this study was for a period of two months for a minimum of eight yoga classes. The total subject number was eighteen. 
Measures
Each participant provided information for the pre-participation survey. Correspondingly, a goal attainment scale, the positive and negative affect scale, the profile of mood states questionnaire, and the RMM-e tracker inventory were all completed before and after the two-month intervention period. Finally, the attendance of each participant was recorded.
This research utilized a quantitative method data analysis approach. The quantitative data analyses included descriptive statistics, the Wilcoxon signed rank test, and linear regression and correlation analysis of the psychometric measurements. The significance levels within each appropriate analysis were measured utilizing the value of equal or less than (p ≤0.05) with a 95% confidence level.
Subject Information
	Subjects included males and females all over the age of eighteen years. Each participant was categorized as a beginning level yoga student with no prior yoga practice experience. Subjects were gathered from two yoga studios in a rural Kansas area. Supplementary subject details included medications and treatments. Specifically mental health therapy for three individuals and an SSRI medication for one subject.


Results
The examination of the psychological elements was achieved through the analysis of pre and post change scores. These analyses were completed applying a linear regression and correlation analysis with a p-value (<0.05) among the data from non-dropout participants. The results revealed a moderate inverse relationship between positive affect and state relaxation, and a strong inverse relationship between negative affect and the state of relaxation.  

Table 1: Positive Affect Descriptive Statistics
	Positive Affect 

	Group
	N
	Mean
	SD
	SE
	Median
	Minimum
	Maximum

	Total Participants (Pre)
	10
	37.2
	9.508
	3.007
	40
	22
	49

	Total Participants (Post)
	10
	36
	9.201
	2.91
	38
	18
	46

	Non-Dropout (Pre)
	6
	42.83
	4.355
	1.778
	43
	38
	49

	Non-Dropout (Post)
	6
	38
	8.602
	3.512
	38.5
	22
	46



Table 2: Negative Affect Descriptive Statistics
	Negative Affect 

	Group
	N
	Mean
	SD
	SE
	Median
	Minimum
	Maximum

	Total Participants (Pre)
	10
	12.6
	4.169
	1.318
	11
	8
	21

	Total Participants (Post)
	10
	13.8
	5.287
	1.672
	11.5
	9
	24

	Non-Dropout (Pre)
	6
	13.17
	4.355
	1.778
	12.5
	9
	21

	Non-Dropout (Post)
	6
	12.17
	4.446
	1.815
	10.5
	9
	21



Table 3: Relaxation Mediation Mindfulness Inventory Descriptive Statistics
	RMM

	Group
	N
	Mean
	SD
	SE
	Median
	Minimum
	Maximum

	Total Participants (Pre)
	10
	2.98
	0.5029
	0.159
	2.7
	2.6
	3.8

	Total Participants (Post)
	10
	3.26
	0.6603
	0.2088
	3.4
	1.8
	4

	Non-Dropout (Pre)
	6
	3.167
	0.5175
	0.2333
	3.1
	2.6
	3.8

	Non-Dropout (Post)
	6
	3.467
	0.4131
	0.1687
	3.4
	2.8
	4



Table 4: Profile of Mood States Descriptive Statistics
	Profile of Mood States

	Group
	N
	Mean
	SD
	SE
	Median
	Minimum
	Maximum

	Total Participants (Pre)
	5
	13
	26.95
	12.05
	14
	-27
	49

	Total Participants (Post)
	5
	6.4
	27.63
	12.36
	3
	-26
	50

	Non-Dropout (Pre)
	4
	4
	20.704
	10.35
	13.5
	-27
	16

	Non-Dropout (Post)
	4
	-8.5
	12.503
	6.251
	-5.5
	-26
	3




Table 5

Goal Attainment Scale Results
    		                  		                         Participant            Attainment Level	 ______________________________________________________________________________
							(Non-DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Improve Flexibility                   1	                  Greater than Expected
                   Enhance relaxation 
       Improve shoulder mobility
     
Post-Intervention Goals     Improve flexibility
                   Enhance relaxation
                   Improve shoulder mobility
                   Become more Fit
______________________________________________________________________________
							(Non-DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Community                                2	                   Expected
       Keep of recent weight loss
       Improve mobility
     

Post-Intervention Goals     Community
    		                   Keep of recent weight loss 
       Improve overall health 
       Reduce stress level
______________________________________________________________________________
							(Non-DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Flexibility                                   3	        Not Selected 
       Improve upper body strength 
       Improve core muscles
       Improve mindfulness 
     
Post-Intervention Goals     Flexibility                             
       Improve upper body strength 
       Improve core muscles
       Improve mindfulness 
______________________________________________________________________________
							(Non-DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Community                                4                    Greater than Expected
       Improve flexibility 
       Improve mindfulness 
       Improve emotional stability 
Post-Intervention Goals     Increase a sense of Community 
       Increase physical activity 
                               Improve flexibility 
                               Enhance relaxation and calm
______________________________________________________________________________
							            (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Body appreciation                            5                  Not Selected
			       Better sleep and stress relief
			       Improve flexibility 
			       Injury Prevention 
     
Post-Intervention Goals     No Data
							            (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      No Data		                            6                  Not Selected
			       
     
Post-Intervention Goals     No Data
						                         (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Self-improvement and self-care       7                  Not Selected
			       Improve range of motion
			       Success in college and Clarity  
			       Marathon preparation 

     
Post-Intervention Goals     No Data
							              (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Attend yoga twice per week       	     8                  Not Selected
			       Move body everyday
			       Book 5 photo shoots
			       Become a Yoga Instructor
     
Post-Intervention Goals     No Data
							         (Non-DO)

Pre-Intervention Goals      More active       	     		    9                  Greater than Expected 
			       Enhance relaxation and peace
			       Improve muscle tone
			       Become a Yoga Instructor
     
Post-Intervention Goals     Self-awareness
			       Muscle tone 
							         (Non-DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      More active       	     		    10                Greater than Expected 
			       Improve breathing
			       Improve motivation
			       
Post-Intervention Goals     More active       	     		    
			       Improve breathing
			       Improve motivation


							            (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Stay in movement     	               11                Not Selected 
			       Improve flexibility 
			       
Post-Intervention Goals     No Data
						                         (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Improve breathing     	               12                Not Selected 
			       Improve flexibility 
			       
Post-Intervention Goals     No Data
						                         (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Relaxation    	               	    13                Not Selected 
			       Muscle tone
			       Weight loss 
			       
Post-Intervention Goals     Relaxation    	               	    
			       Muscle tone
			       Weight loss 
______________________________________________________________________________
							              (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Relaxation    	               	    14                Not Selected 
			       Improve teaching lessons
			       Relax muscles  
			       
Post-Intervention Goals     Relaxation    	               	    
			       Improve teaching lessons
			       Relax muscles  
______________________________________________________________________________
			       				              (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Enhance mood  	               	    15                Not Selected 
			       Improve flexibility 
			       Increase core strength 
			       Relaxation and focus on breathing 
			       
Post-Intervention Goals     Enhance mood  	               	    
			       Improve flexibility 
			       Increase core strength 
			       Relaxation and focus on breathing 
______________________________________________________________________________
							              (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Improve balance  	               	    16               Not Selected 
			       Improve flexibility 
			       Stay calm and  balanced  
			       Relaxation and positive mood
			       
Post-Intervention Goals     Delay aging   	               	    
			       Maintain health and flexibility 
			       Increase mental health and focus 
			       Relaxation and positive mood
							              (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Improve balance  	               	    17               Not Selected 
			       Improve flexibility 
			       Stay calm and  balanced  
			       
			       
Post-Intervention Goals     No Data
							              (DO)
Pre-Intervention Goals      Improve balance  	               	    18               Not Selected 
			       Improve flexibility 
			       More strength 
			       Decrease stress and improve breathing   
			       
			       
Post-Intervention Goals     No Data

Note. Participants determined and recorded individual goals for attending and practicing yoga on a goal attainment scale. Additionally, the goal attainment level was reported in the post-intervention GAS results. The results which state Not Selected or No Data for the attainment level and goal content are due to incomplete outcomes reported by the subjects who dropped out. The dropout status is indicated in parentheses above the participant number. Non-DO represents non-dropout and DO represents dropout. 
The attainment levels are measured to determine if the participant has met their individualized goals and expectations for the yoga practice. 


















Figure 1 
Positive Affect and Relaxation State Pre-Post Change Scores Correlation



	Note. The data as gathered from the pre-post change scores of the positive affect (PA) and the Relaxation Meditation and Mindfulness (RMM) Inventory results of non-dropout participants to calculate a linear regression and correlation analysis. This analysis examined the relationship between the two variables with the aim to establish the connection among the fluctuations within the psychological measurement outcomes. Specifically, for the subjects that maintained extended yoga class attendance. 
	R2 = .27, F(1,4) = 1.47, p = .292. β = -.04, p = .292. R-Squared (R2) equals 0.2684. Meaning that 26.8% of the variability of Relaxation is explained by Positive Affect. Correlation (R) equals -0.5181. Denoting that there is a moderate inverse relationship between Positive Affect and Relaxation. This is considered a paradoxical finding. 





















Figure 2
Negative Affect and Relaxation State Pre-Post Change Scores Correlation


	Note. The data as gathered from the pre-post change scores of the Negative Affect (NA) and the Relaxation Meditation and Mindfulness (RMM) Inventory results of non-dropout participants to calculate a linear regression and correlation analysis. This analysis examined the relationship between the two variables with the aim to establish the connection among the fluctuations within the psychological measurement outcomes. Specifically, for the subjects that maintained extended yoga class attendance. 
	R2 = .41, F(1,4) = 2.81, p = .169. β = .18, p = .169. R-Squared (R2) equals 0.4129. This means that 41.3% of the variability of increased Relaxation is explained by Negative Affect reduction. Correlation (R) equals 0.6426, denoting that there is a strong inverse relationship between Negative Affect and Relaxation.





















Figure 3
Positive Affect and POMS Pre-Post Change Scores Correlation



	Note. The data as gathered from the pre-post change scores of the Positive Affect (PA) and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) results of non-dropout participants to calculate a linear regression and correlation analysis. This analysis examined the relationship between the two variables with the aim to establish the connection among the fluctuations within the psychological measurement outcomes. Specifically, for the subjects that maintained extended yoga class attendance. 
	R2 = .0045, F(1,2) = 0.009, p = .933. β = .068, p = .933. R-Squared (R2) equals 0.004495. This means that 0.4% of the variability of POMS is explained by Positive Affect. Correlation (R) equals 0.06705, denoting that there is a very weak direct relationship between Positive Affect and POMS. This is considered a paradoxical finding. 


















Figure 4
Negative Affect and POMS Pre-Post Change Scores Correlation

	Note. The data as gathered from the pre-post change scores of the Negative Affect (NA) and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) results of non-dropout participants to calculate a linear regression and correlation analysis. This analysis examined the relationship between the two variables with the aim to establish the connection among the fluctuations within the psychological measurement outcomes. Specifically, for the subjects that maintained extended yoga class attendance. 
	R2 = .16, F(1,2) = 0.37, p = .603. β = 2.9, p = .603. R-Squared (R2) equals 0.1576. This means that 15.8% of the variability of POMS is explained by Negative Affect. Correlation (R) equals 0.397, denoting that there is a weak direct relationship between Negative Affect and POMS.




















Figure 5
Relaxation State and POMS Pre-Post Change Scores Correlation


		                                                   RMM

Note. The data as gathered from the pre-post change scores of the Relaxation Meditation and Mindfulness (RMM) Inventory and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) results of non-dropout participants to calculate a linear regression and correlation analysis. This analysis examined the relationship between the two variables with the aim to establish the connection among the fluctuations within the psychological measurement outcomes. Specifically, for the subjects that maintained extended yoga class attendance. 
	R2 = .0011, F(1,2) = 0.0021, p = .967. β = .81, p = .967. R-Squared (R2) equals 0.001068, meaning that 0.1% of the variability of POMS is explained by RMM. Correlation (R) equals 0.03268, and denoting that there is a very weak direct relationship between the RMM and POMS.

















Discussion
Ancillary data was obtained regarding attendance and dropout rates. This information includes the narratives of four out of the eighteen subjects in the study that dropped out. These subjects replied to the investigator during the post-research data collection. Each subject claimed that attendance cessation occurred due to non-availability. 
The total dropout percentage was 66.6%. There was an important correlation between attendance and the goal content among the subjects who maintained attendance. The goal attainment scaling content results demonstrate that the goal content is significant and presents a connection between the participants who completed the intervention period and continued to practice yoga in contrast to those participants who did not. The goals of the non-drop-out subjects who maintained yoga class attendance incorporated goals focused on improved relaxation and mood as well as decreased levels of stress, and the importance of community. Moreover, these subjects completed the goal attainment scaling level detailing that the goals were achieved. 
Furthermore, each subject who maintained attendance in the yoga classes demonstrated  an increase of relaxation state and a reduction in the total mood disturbance score as well as decrease of negative affect. Nevertheless, the paradoxical findings between the particular change scores are notable due to the opposite nature of the expected outcomes. 
Limitations
The main limitation of this research includes the small number of subjects. This was most likely due to a limited sample population in a rural area. The second critical limitation was the high drop-out rate. Finally, incomplete data is available outside of the utilized assessments concerning the individual subject experience of the yoga practice. 
Conclusion
The outcomes of this research provide more detailed information behind the reasoning for yoga practice cessation. Existing research provides only minimal explanations regarding this topic and includes results from yoga attendance within medical group research studies and group therapy treatments. The data gathered from these subjects offers evidence to support the preceding research for group therapy treatments, in conjunction with contributing more understanding within the general population of yoga practitioners. Particularly, concerning the influences of attendance and dropout. The practical purposes of this information might help yoga studios more productively focus on the needs of the students attending; and thus, improve retention rates. Additionally, when the necessities of the yoga students are more fully met, the psychological components examined within this research may be improved. 
Acknowledgment
The author acknowledges the support of the professors from Saybrook University who participated in the development of this research and dissertation.









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