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Ann. psychophysiol. 
ISSN 2412-3188 (Online)|2410-1354 (Print) 

APP| Published By AEIRC| https://doi.org/10.29052/2412-3188.v10.i2.2023.62-67 

Original Article 

Evaluating Gustatory Changes in 
Long-Term Nicotine Users 
Faizan Mirza, Mubeen Ali, Haris Kaleemullah,  
Muhammad Hussain Leghari & Muhammad Jamal 
Psychophysiology Research Lab, Department of Physiology, University of Karachi, Karachi-
Pakistan

Abstract 
Background: Nicotine consumption, whether through smoking, vaping, or other 
methods, is known to influence various sensory perceptions, including reward, 
antinociception, and aversion due to bitter taste, irritation, and adverse effects. 
This study aims to assess gustatory changes in long-term nicotine users and 
investigate the associated neurobiological processes. 
Methodology: This pilot cross-sectional study was conducted in Karachi, Pakistan, 
from February to March 2023. A total of 100 male participants were categorized 
into four groups: control (non-nicotine users), smokers, chew tobacco/gutka users, 
and nicotine patch users. The gustatory function was evaluated using ODOFIN 
Taste Strips, which represent four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. 
Participants underwent a taste screening test, where they tasted each strip and 
identified the corresponding taste. Correct identifications were scored as 1, and 
incorrect responses as 0, resulting in total taste scores ranging from 0 to 4. Data 
collection focused on participants' responses during the taste screening tests. 
Results: The mean age of participants was 31.80 ± 7.23 years. Descriptive statistics 
revealed variations in nicotine usage among the groups. One-way ANOVA 
analysis demonstrated a statistically significant difference in the frequency of 
nicotine use across the groups (p = 0.032). Furthermore, taste detection scores 
exhibited a statistically significant difference among the groups (p = 0.002). 
Conclusion: This pilot study suggests that nicotine usage predominantly affects 
the identification of bitter taste, with the extent of impact varying based on the 
mode of nicotine consumption.  

Keywords 
Nicotine Consumption, Gustatory Changes, Sensory Effects, Taste Identification, 

ODOFIN Taste Strips 

Citation: Mirza F, Ali M, Kaleemullah H, 
Leghari MH, Jamal M. Evaluating 
Gustatory Changes in Long-Term Nicotine 
Users. APP. 2023;10(2): 62-67 

Corresponding Author Email: 
fm.faizan.mirza@gmail.com 

DOI: 10.29052/2412-3188.v10.i2.2023.62-67 

Received 19/10/2023 

Accepted 25/11/2023 

Published 01/12/2023 

Copyright © The Author(s). 2023. This is an 
open-access article distributed under the 
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 
4.0 International License, which permits 
unrestricted use, distribution, and 
reproduction in any medium, provided the 
original author and source are credited.  

Funding: The author(s) received no 
specific funding for this work. 

Conflicts of Interests: The authors have 
declared that no competing interests exist. 

https://doi.org/10.29052/2412-3188.v10.i2.2023.
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63 

ISSN 2412-3188 (Online)| 2410-1354 (Print) 

APP| Published By AEIRC| Volume 10 Issue 2 

Introduction 
Tobacco smoking remains a significant 
public health concern globally, with nicotine 
serving as the primary psychoactive 
compound accountable for addiction and 
dependence1. In addition to its addictive 
nature, nicotine exposure has been linked to 
various physiological alterations, including 
changes in sensory perception, particularly 
within the realm of gustation. Gustation, or 
the sense of taste, plays a pivotal role in food 
perception, preference, and overall 
nutritional behavior. Hence, comprehending 
the impact of long-term nicotine use on 
gustatory function is imperative for 
understanding its broader health 
implications2. 

Numerous studies have delved into the 
effects of nicotine on taste perception, 
employing diverse methodologies to 
evaluate changes in taste sensitivity, 
preferences, and thresholds among long-
term nicotine users3. These investigations 
have uncovered intricate interactions 
between nicotine exposure and taste 
perception, with findings suggesting both 
acute and chronic alterations in taste 
perception profiles. Initially, research 
predominantly focused on acute effects, 
demonstrating nicotine's capacity to 
modulate taste perception through 
interactions with nicotinic acetylcholine 
receptors (nAChRs) present in taste buds4. 
These receptors are known to influence the 
release of neurotransmitters involved in 
taste signal transduction, potentially altering 
taste perception. Furthermore, animal 
studies have offered valuable insights into 
the underlying mechanisms of nicotine-
induced changes in taste perception, 
highlighting neural processing alterations 
within the gustatory pathway5,6. 

However, the understanding of the long-
term effects of nicotine on gustatory function 

remains relatively limited and necessitates 
further investigation7. Longitudinal studies 
investigating taste perception in chronic 
smokers over extended periods can provide 
valuable insights into the persistence and 
progression of gustatory changes associated 
with nicotine use. Additionally, evaluating 
taste perception in individuals undergoing 
smoking cessation interventions presents a 
unique opportunity to assess the 
reversibility of these alterations following 
nicotine withdrawal8-10. Moreover, the 
ramifications of altered taste perception 
extend beyond sensory experience, 
potentially impacting dietary habits, 
nutritional status, and overall health 
outcomes among long-term nicotine users11. 

Understanding the interplay between 
nicotine exposure and taste perception is, 
therefore, critical for developing effective 
interventions aimed at mitigating the 
adverse health effects associated with 
tobacco smoking. 

Methodology 
Study Design 
This cross-sectional study aimed to 
investigate the relationship between nicotine 
use and taste detection among male subjects 
in Karachi between February and March 
2023. 

Setting 
The study was conducted in Karachi, a 
metropolitan city in Pakistan known for its 
diverse population and prevalence of 
tobacco use. 

Participants 
A total of 100 male subjects were included in 
the study. They were divided into four 
groups: Group I (control) consisted of non-
nicotine users, Group II comprised cigarette 
smokers, Group III included chew tobacco 
(gutka) users, and Group IV consisted of 
nicotine patch users. 



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APP| Published By AEIRC| Volume 10 Issue 2 

Variables 

• Independent Variable: Nicotine use
(categorized into four groups).

• Dependent Variable: Taste detection score
(measured using ODOFIN Taste Strips).

Data Sources/Measurement 
Taste identification was assessed using 
ODOFIN Taste Strips, which include four 
chitin-based strips representing the four 
basic tastes: sweet (A), sour (B), salty (C), and 
bitter (D). Subjects were asked to taste each 
strip and identify the taste. Correct 
identification was recorded as 1, and 
incorrect identification as 0. The total taste 
score ranged from 0 to 4. 

Bias 
To minimize bias, participants were selected 
randomly from the population of interest, 
and efforts were made to ensure an equal 
distribution of participants across the four 
groups. Standardized procedures were 
followed for taste identification to reduce 
measurement bias. 

Study Size 
The study included a sample size of 100 male 
subjects, with 25 participants in each of the 
four groups. This sample size was deemed 
sufficient to detect statistically significant 

differences in taste detection scores among 
the groups. 

Quantitative Variables 
The quantitative variables included the age 
of participants and Taste detection score.  

Statistical Methods 
Statistical analysis was performed using 
SPSS version 22.0. Descriptive statistics, 
including frequencies, percentages, means, 
and standard deviations, were used to 
summarize the data. One-way ANOVA was 
employed to determine whether there were 
statistically significant differences in the 
frequency of nicotine use among the four 
groups. Additionally, one-way ANOVA was 
used to assess differences in taste detection 
scores among the groups. 

Result 
The mean age of all participants was 31.80 ± 
7.23 years. Significantly different frequencies 
of nicotine use among groups were observed 
(p=0.032).  

Additionally, there were statistically 
significant differences in taste detection 
scores among the groups (p=0.002). 

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of all four group participants. 

Participants Groups 
Taste Detection Score Frequency of Nicotine use per day 

Mean ± SD Mean ± SD 

Control 3.84±0.37 - 

Cigarette Smokers 3.28±0.73 5.12±3.27 

Chew Tobacco User 2.80±0.70 4.76±2.40 

Nicotine Patch User 3.08±0.70 3.6±1.30 

P-value 0.002* 0.032* 
*p<0.05 is considered statistically significant.



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Discussion 
The findings of this study shed light on the 
intricate relationship between nicotine 
exposure and taste perception. The control 
group, composed of non-nicotine users, 
acted as a reference point, facilitating the 
detection of variations in taste perception 
among nicotine consumers. By comparing 
taste scores across different user groups, 
including smokers, tobacco chewers, and 
nicotine patch users, the study could discern 
potential differences in taste perception 
associated with distinct modes of nicotine 
consumption. 

The utilization of ODOFIN Taste Strips 
standardized the evaluation of taste 
perception, enabling objective comparisons 
among participants. These strips, 
representing the four basic taste qualities, 
allowed for a comprehensive assessment of 
taste sensitivity and identification accuracy. 

Interpreting the study's findings necessitates 
consideration of various factors, including 
potential confounding variables such as age, 
socioeconomic status, and dietary habits. 
Additionally, the study's sample size and 
composition may impact the generalizability 
of results, especially concerning gender-
specific variations in taste perception. Cross-
sectional studies have yielded mixed results 
regarding taste sensitivity among smokers, 
with some indicating decreased sensitivity to 
certain tastes like sweet and bitter, while 
others have found no significant differences 
compared to non-smokers9. 

Longitudinal studies offer a more robust 
approach to examining the persistence and 
progression of gustatory changes over time. 
For instance, a prospective cohort study by 
de Graaf et al. (2019)11 observed a gradual 
decline in taste sensitivity among chronic 
smokers over a five-year period, particularly 
in sweet and umami taste qualities, 

indicating selective alterations linked to 
prolonged nicotine exposure. 

Animal models have also contributed 
valuable insights into the underlying 
mechanisms of nicotine-induced changes in 
taste perception. Studies in rodents have 
demonstrated neural processing alterations 
within the gustatory pathway following 
chronic nicotine administration, including 
modulation of neurotransmitter release and 
changes in taste receptor expression12. These 
findings underscore the role of nicotinic 
acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in 
mediating nicotine's effects on taste 
perception, suggesting potential targets for 
pharmacological interventions. 

In vitro experiments utilizing cell culture 
and molecular techniques have further 
elucidated the molecular mechanisms 
underlying nicotine-induced alterations in 
taste perception. Research has uncovered the 
involvement of nAChRs in taste bud 
function and signal transduction, revealing 
complex interactions between nicotine and 
taste receptor cells13-15. 

The implications of altered taste perception 
in long-term nicotine users extend beyond 
sensory experience to affect dietary behavior 
and nutritional status. Chronic smokers may 
exhibit altered food preferences, reduced 
appetite, and changes in dietary patterns, 
potentially leading to nutritional deficiencies 
and adverse health outcomes16,17. 
Additionally, gustatory changes may impact 
smoking cessation outcomes, as alterations 
in taste perception during nicotine 
withdrawal can influence cravings and 
relapse rates18,19. 

Future research could expand upon these 
findings by incorporating larger sample 
sizes, diverse populations, and longitudinal 
follow-ups to track changes in taste 
perception over time. Furthermore, 



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investigating the underlying mechanisms 
driving alterations in taste perception among 
nicotine users, such as changes in taste bud 
morphology or neural processing, would 
provide deeper insights into the 
physiological effects of nicotine on the 
gustatory system. 

Conclusion 
In conclusion, the evaluation of gustatory 
changes in long-term nicotine users involves 
a multidisciplinary approach encompassing 
human studies, animal models, and in vitro 
experiments. By integrating findings from 
this study, researchers can elucidate the 
complex mechanisms underlying nicotine-
induced alterations in taste perception and 
their implications for dietary behavior and 
health outcomes. Future research should 
focus on longitudinal studies to further 
elucidate the long-term effects of nicotine on 
taste perception and develop targeted 
interventions to mitigate adverse gustatory 
changes associated with tobacco smoking. 

Acknowledgment 
We extend our appreciation to the 
participants of this study for their time and 
cooperation, without which this research 
would not have been feasible. 

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