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©Advance Educational Institute & Research Centre 

Volume 5, October 2018  
www.aeirc-edu.com 

ISSN 2412 - 3188 
 
 

Sonya Arshad 47 

 

Original Article                                                                                 DOI: 10.29052/2412-3188.v5.i1.2018.47-53 

Brain Circuit Remapping in Blind 
Sonya Arshad, Muhammad Faisal Qureshi, Syed Hasan Abbas Rizvi, Sidra Farooq, M. 

Habib Amin Malik, Mahanoor Shakeel &Rida Sabir 

Liaquat National School of Physiotherapy 

Corresponding Author Email: sonya.arshad@lnh.edu.pk 

Received 02/04/2018; Accepted 22/09/2018; Published 10/10/2018  

 

Abstract 

Background: If people dearth something regarding their senses, they mold their brain in 

accordance with the environs. Researches indicate vision is not always a necessity for the 

ramification of the brain's cortical organization. Our real endeavor is to channel people if an 

individual lacks something the brain rewires in a way that the lacking becomes unrecognizable 

and their other capabilities improve.  Methodology: This was a cross-sectional study conducted 

on 80 subjects of age 15-30 years at Liaquat National School of Physiotherapy. Group A 

comprised of 40 congenitally blind subjects from Dar-ul-sukun and Ida Rieu School for blind 

and deaf while group B consisted of 40 sighted subjects. Senses of both groups were assessed 

by smelling, graphesthesia, two-point discrimination, auditory acuity test, foot tap test and sixth 

sense test. Collected data was analyzed on SPSS version 20 by applying independent sample t-

test. Result: The results showed that the scores of group A outweighed that of group B as all 

the tests showed a significant mean difference with p-value<0.05. In Foot Tap Test, group A 

and group B showed a difference of 7.12+0.9 between their mean scores while in Smelling 

Test, there was a difference of 4.6+1.48. In Touch Test (Graphesthesia), the mean scores 

showed a difference of 2.5+1.22. Furthermore, there was also a significant difference between 

the mean scores of Group A and Group B for Discrimination Test, Two Point Discrimination 

Test, Auditory Acuity Test and Sixth Sense Test. Conclusion: It can be concluded that the 

brain has the ability to remold itself according to the milieu. Moreover, this reorganization can 

also be done without deprivation by repetitive trials to augment specific functions.  

Keywords 

Brain Plasticity, Graphesthesia, Extrasensory Perception 

Introduction 

Loss, whether physical or emotional, take 

away a person's attribute to stand upright in 

front of the world. But when it comes to our 

brain, it doesn't leave an opportunity when 

there's a chance that things can work 

efficiently. Globally, a total of 1.4 million 

childbirths were reported as congenitally 

blind (Courtright et al., 2011; Gilbert & 

Awan, 2003). The prevalence of congenital 

blindness is common in developing 

countries because of poor 

maternal/neonatal health as compared to the 

affluent population (Gilbert & Awan, 

2003). Our brain is a complex work of 

nature, we do not know it neither can we 

judge the way it works (Kolb & Whishaw, 

1998). Similarly, the human brain works on 

itself in a way that the change isn’t easily 

felt and is taken by the brain as a normal 

phenomenon so that it is not felt, this is 

where the word experience fits (Kolb & 

Whishaw, 1998). Experience is a major 

factor in brain plasticity which produces 

multiple changes in dendritic length, 

behavior, synapse, increased glial activity 

and altered metabolic activity (Sterr et al., 

1998. Our brain is like a plastic, yet we 

ignore it and just believe how rigid its 

complexity (Kolb & Whishaw, 1998) is. 

Plasticity directly contradicts rigidity (Kolb 

& Whishaw, 1998). Brain’s plasticity 

revolves around 3 levels, the neuronal 

connections (developmental plasticity in 

the embryo), the modification of neuronal 

connections (Synaptic moderation) and the 

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Annals of Psychophysiology 
©Advance Educational Institute & Research Centre 

Volume 5, October 2018  
www.aeirc-edu.com 

ISSN 2412 - 3188 
 
 

Sonya Arshad 48 

 

capacity for repair (Post lesional Plasticity) 

(Pascual-Leone et al., 2005). 

Plasticity is an inherent property of the 

human brain which delivers the picture of 

evolution and enables the central nervous 

system to challenge its own created 

restriction to overcome the needs of the 

body. As we are quite aware of the brain’s 

ability to change which is more pronounced 

in the developmental stages of life to 

acquire new skills and learn through 

different experiences while memories stay 

and continue playing its part and storage 

throughout life (Kolb & Whishaw, 1998). 

The brain has the capability to surmount 

itself and amplify the whole process of 

automatic rewiring to augment normal 

functions. Neuro-scientific researches 

indicate that vision is not always an 

obligatory requirement for the implication 

of the brain's cortical organization. Changes 

in the cortical organization occur after both 

increased sensory input to a portion of the 

brain and decreased sensory input to the 

other (Sterr et al., 1998).  

Neuroimaging shows that in both sighted 

and non-sighted, similar cortical networks 

subtend visual and non-visual discernment 

of form, space or movement as well as 

action and recognition (Johnston, 2009). 

The changes can be seen on different levels 

in the brain such as molecular, synaptic, 

behavioral, perceptual and motor levels. 

The brain of congenitally blind people is 

designed in a way that its flexible nature can 

adapt to any type of environment and start 

augmenting different stimulus in order to 

work accordingly (Kolb & Gibb, 2011). 

This phenomenon doesn’t occur in acquired 

blindness (Kolb & Gibb, 2011). Though 

visual representation is very important for a 

person to function and we cannot deny how 

fast the body responds on visual feedback 

but it has a low impact on memory while the 

other senses work and respond slow, but 

they have a high impact factor on memory 

(Kolb & Gibb, 2011). 

Based on the scenario given above, 

following a disability whether it is a limb or 

a sensory system different parts of brain 

refashion and play a compensatory role in 

order to make the body function properly 

(Ricciardi et al., 2014). We live in a world 

where less fortunate people are neglected 

and this way their ability to interact with the 

environment depresses their role as an 

independent working individual in society. 

Facts like these aren't accepted by the 

material world as it's a fast working globe, 

an individual is judged on every other 

drawback he/she has in order to compete. 

By this we as an individual of this 

environment neglect how nature extends its 

ways and how complicated organization a 

brain persists to act perfectly. Though it 

cannot be denied that what wonders vision 

plays but when a person becomes blind the 

brain doesn't leave behind the cortical 

networks, in fact, works in a way to 

compensate and develop a whole new 

organization to compete with the world.   

As the world is entirely ignorant of brain 

plasticity, yet we are not ignorant of a 

certain type of organization of labor, part-

time jobs, temporary contracts, and the 

demand for absolute mobility, adaptability 

and creativity (Kolb & Whishaw, 1998). 

So, the question arises is the society ready 

to provide an opportunity for blind 

individuals to be employed? The purpose of 

this study is to compare the senses in blind 

and sighted individuals to prove the 

difference between the sensory cues of 

blind and sighted individuals. To explain 

the reimbursement of everything a blind 

person's brain beholds. To make the world 

aware of the benefits a blind employee can 

provide them and how efficient and career 

marking landmark they can be. Blinds are 

no less of a competition to sighted 

individuals. 

 

Methodology 

This cross-sectional study was conducted as 

a single blinded. A sample of 40 

congenitally blinded subjects of age group 

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15-35years was recruited from Dar-us-

sukun and Ida Rieu School for Blind and 

Deaf, in whom no other sensory deprivation 

was reported (group A). It was ensured that 

the cause of blindness was purely 

ophthalmic and the participants had no 

other psychiatric or motor disturbance. The 

control group consisted of an equal number 

of sighted individuals with the entire senses 

unscathed group B). Participants using 

sensory aid devices or prosthesis were 

excluded from both the groups. Informed 

consent was taken prior to study 

participation. Sighted group was 

blindfolded during the study to exclude 

visual stimulus. Senses of both the groups 

were then evaluated on the basis of different 

tests. Smelling was assessed by identifying 

flash cards in Smelling Identification Test 

(modification of University of 

Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test) and 

scoring was done. Somatosensory 

sensations (tactile sensation and 

discrimination) were evaluated by the mean 

scores of graphesthesia, stereognosis and 

two-point discrimination tests. Auditory 

acumen was measured by Hearing Acuity 

Test using a ringing object while auditory 

discernment was assessed by Foot Tap 

Discrimination Test in which subjects were 

asked to identify the specific foot sound. 

Besides these basic senses, extrasensory 

perceptions were also evaluated using a 

self-reported questionnaire. To check how 

strong the wits are, the total scores of both 

the groups were analyzed on SPSS 

version20 by applying independent sample 

T-test and a p value<0.05 was considered 

significant. 

 

Results 

The results revealed the mean age group for 

group A to be 21.3+2.9 while for group B, 

it is found to be 23.6+3.0. Additionally, the 

test results showed that group A has 

heightened senses than group B as all the 

tests showed a significant mean difference 

with p-value<0.05. In Foot Tap Test, group 

A and group B showed a difference of 

7.12+0.9 between their mean scores while 

in Smelling Test, there was a difference of 

4.6+1.48. In Touch Test (Graphesthesia), 

the mean scores showed a difference of 

2.5+1.22. Furthermore, there was also a 

significant difference between the mean 

scores of Group A and Group B for 

Discrimination Test, Two Point 

Discrimination Test, Auditory Acuity Test 

and Sixth Sense Test. 

 

Table 1: Mean scores of various tests between blinds and sighted individuals 

Test Group Mean +S.D 
Mean 

Difference 
P-Value 

Smelling Test 
A 8.4+1.257  

4.6 
0.001 

B 3.8+1.728 

Touch Test 
A 7.75+0.981  

2.5 
0.004 

B 5.25+1.463 

Discrimination Test 
A 9.45+0.783  

0.5 
0.005 

B 8.95+1.154 

Two Point Discrimination Test 
A 2+0.00  

1.275 
0.004 

B 0.73+0.847 

Auditory Acuity Test 
A 4.65+0.736  

1.55 
0.003 

B 3.1+1.033 

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Sonya Arshad 50 

 

Foot Tap Test 
A 7.75+1.316  

7.125 
0.001 

B 0.63+0.49 

Sixth Sense Test 
A 6+0.385 

5.175 0.001 
B 0.83+1.519 

*Group A=blinds; Group B=sighted individuals 

*SD= Standard Deviation 

 

Discussion 

There is growing evidence that sensory 

indigence is confederate with cross-modal 

neuroplastic changes in the brain. 

Neuroplasticity is basically the brain's 

adaptation after a sensory loss (Merabet & 

Pascual-Leone, 2010). This study aimed to 

corroborate experimentally that early blinds 

have heightened senses including olfaction, 

tactile, audition and extrasensory 

perception. Many research studies support 

this phenomenon by neuroimaging studies 

(Voss et al., 2014&Théoret et al., 2004). 

Patrice Voss and Bruce evidenced this 

reorganizational compensatory mechanism 

in contrast to disuse atrophy using 

magnetization transfer ratio and found 

higher magnetization ratios in the occipital 

regions of early blinds as compared to the 

sighted ones with a p-value <0.005 (Voss et 

al., 2014). In a systemic review, T. Kujala 

et al., concluded that the occipital cortex of 

the blind is activated by auditory stimulus 

when the task is to detect the change of 

sound, which highlights the neuroplasticity 

with attentive processing of stimuli (Kujala, 

2000). These findings also support the 

results of this study as in foot tap test, blinds 

outperformed the sighted ones with a 

difference of 7.125 points. Moreover, they 

also found some evidence regarding 

neuroplasticity in the healthy human brain, 

these findings form the basis for 

advancements in rehabilitation sector 

(Doucet et al., 2006). 

 

Our brain is adaptable in nature by some 

practice or experience. We can mold or 

adjust our brain according to our need or 

environment (Voss et al., 2014; Merabet & 

Pascual-Leone, 2010 & Jones, 2000). In an 

annual review by Centre of Neuroscience, 

conclusive remarks were made regarding 

this which states that although visual 

information is necessary for activity but in 

any case visual sense is lost, the neurons 

from surrounding sensory areas sprouts in 

occipital region along with divergence of 

preexisting circuits and expression of latent 

synapses (Jones, 2000). 

 

In the current study, different tests were 

performed to experimentally validate the 

phenomena of neuroplasticity by 

comparing the intact senses. The first test 

was Smelling Identification Test, done to 

assess the olfactory sense, in which the 

results showed the potential difference 

between the olfactory capabilities of both 

the groups with a difference of 4.6 out of 10 

(Table 1). The results contradicted to the 

findings of a meta-analysis conducted by 

Agnieszka Sorokowska et al. which 

concluded blindness does not seem to affect 

odor identification, discrimination or odor 

thresholds (Sorokowska et al., 2018). 

However  Cuevas and Renier et al., 

supported functional modulation of 

occipital cortex in early blinds and reported 

favored results for early blinds in odor 

discrimination (p < 0.0002), free-

identification (p < 0.0001) and 

categorization (p < 0.0004) (Renier et al., 

2013 & Cuevas et al., 2009). 

 

Tactile sensation was evaluated by 

graphesthesia, stereognosis and two-point 

discrimination test (Table 1). Graphesthesia 

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is the tactile localization of our brain in 

which stronger mechanoreceptors functions 

as a tactile sensor, as evident in a study by 

Jones B which records increased cutaneous 

localization by the blind than the sighted (t 

= 2.50, df = 236, p < .01) (Jones, 1972).  

Stereognosis was also found to be well 

developed in non-sighted individuals which 

depend on memory, experience and 

practice including an intact somatosensory 

system.  Heller concludes congruent results 

to the current findings regarding tactile 

enhancement in blinds and states that visual 

experience is not necessary for picture 

perception (Heller, 2002). This 

enhancement may be a result of practicing 

tactile discrimination while Braille reading 

(Burton et al., 2002). 2PD Test was 

performed to measure it and similar 

outweighed results were found in favor of 

the blind population as shown in (Table 1). 

 

In a study in 2016, Bhavana G. Bhirud 

stated that adaptation to environment 

depends upon quickness of response as he 

found mean auditory reaction time for 

blinds to be 0.21+0.03s while 0.32+0.06 for 

the sighted group which was statistically 

significant with a p-value 0.000 (Bhirud & 

Chandan, 2017). The current study also 

assessed auditory localization and response 

time by Auditory Acuity Test and Foot Tap 

Recognition. In auditory acuity test, blinds 

were found to have a value of 4.65+0.736s 

while 3.1+1.033s for the sighted group. The 

increase in value was expected as the 

reaction time was also added in the 

recorded results. In both the tests, blinds 

outperformed the sighted individuals. 

Results also validate the findings of the 

studies which favor the recruitment of 

occipital cortex by auditory modalities 

(Gougoux et al., 2004 & Lessard et al., 

1998).  

 

Conclusively, it is evident that despite the 

lack of vision, congenitally blind subjects 

are able to build and manipulate neuronal 

circuit for spatial navigation. This neuronal 

substitution is more evident in early blinds 

as compared to late blinds (Lessard et al., 

1998 & Wanet-Defalque et al., 1988). 

 

Conclusion 

It can be concluded from the results that 

following sensory deprivation, neuro-

compensatory mechanisms generate new 

axonal pathways which makes the brain 

proficient in other functions. This 

mechanism should be considered as the 

basis for the management regimen of the 

sensory deficient population so that their 

productivity could be increased. Also, 

healthy people can ameliorate their normal 

functions by repetitive trials to enhance 

their specific activity. 

 

Conflicts of Interests  

None. 

 

Acknowledgment 

We acknowledge the administration and 

staff of Dar-ul-sukun and Ida Rieu School 

for Blind and Deaf for extending their 

immense support. We are also thankful to 

Muhammad Nisar, Sr. lecturer at 

Department of Physiology, University of 

Karachi for his guidance. 

 

Funding 

None. 

 

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