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Ann. psychophysiol. 
ISSN 2412-3188 (Online)|2410-1354 (Print) 

APP| Published By AEIRC| https://doi.org/10.29052/2412-3188.v9.i2.2022.95-105 

Original Article 

University Students' Concerns about 
Terrorism, Resilience, and Coping Strategies 
Saima Masoom Ali
Department of Psychology, University of Karachi, Karachi-Pakistan 

Abstract 
Background: Current research inspects the concerns of students of the university 
about terrorism and their capacity to bounce back, and the coping strategies they 
are using to deal with it. A cross-sectional study research design is employed in 
the current study. 
Methodology: The sample is comprised of 387 students collected from faculties of 
Karachi University (1) Faculties of Social Sciences, Islamic Studies, Education, 
Law, and Administrative Sciences and (2)    Faculties of Science, Engineering, 
Pharmacy, and Medicine.  A consent form, demographic sheet, Students' concerns 
about terrorism scale, Brief resilience scale, and COPE inventory were 
administered to students.   
Results: Demonstrated significant positive relationship among Anti-Terrorism, 
Peace, and Female emancipation. Further linear regression analysis shows that 
peace scores explain a 21.8% variance and female Emancipation score explains an 
18.4% variance in the Anti-terrorism score. Multivariate analysis of variance shows 
a significant difference between gender in scores of Anti-terrorism, peace, female 
emancipation, and coping strategies (self-destruction, substance use, and positive 
reframing). 
Conclusion: Participants' resilience was found to be in the normal range. A 
significant positive relationship was found between Anti-Terrorism, Peace, and 
Female emancipation.  Those who had anti-terrorist views were in favor of peace 
and Female emancipation. 

Keywords 
University Student, Resilience, Coping Strategies, Concerns About 

Terrorism. 

Citation: Ali SM. University Students' 
Concerns about Terrorism, Resilience, and 
Coping Strategies. APP. 2023; 9(2): 95-105 

Corresponding Author Email: 
saima.ali@uok.edu.pk 

DOI: 10.29052/2412-3188.v9.i2.2022.95-
105 

Received 10/10/2022 

Accepted 08/11/2022 

Published 01/12/2022 

Copyright © The Author(s). 2022. This is 
an open-access article distributed under 
the terms of the Creative Commons 
Attribution 4.0 International License, 
which permits unrestricted use, 
distribution, and reproduction in any 
medium, provided the original author and 
source are credited.  

Funding: The author(s) received no 
specific funding for this work. 

Conflicts of Interests: The authors have 
declared that no competing interests 
exist. 

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Introduction 
Terrorism is one of the main problems in 
Pakistan and has been distressing its 
residents for ages. Pakistan is playing a 
substantial part globally in the battle against 
terrorism. 

Pakistan displays indications that point to a 
tremendous prospective for youth 
radicalization. The situation is evident by a 
poor education scheme stratified along 
socio-economic lines and unequal economic 
chances across sections of society. These 
cautionary signals raise the probability of 
young members of society being persuaded 
into extremist causes. Moreover, the 
existence of an extremist set-up, the flawless 
organizational discipline, the extensive 
social systems of Pakistan's Islamist political 
and militant outfits, the disappointment of 
the moderate forces to bring credible results, 
and myopic US strategies additionally 
enhance it1.   

Terrorism’ has no universal definition, the 
academicians and intellectuals have defined 
it in diverse ways. According to Webster’s 
Dictionary2, "terrorism is the systematic use 
of violence, terror, and intimidation to 
achieve an end."  

Terrorism has profound origins in the 
society of Pakistan because of numerous 
reasons that comprise poor governance, 
demotion of rural regions, delay, and the 
absence of justice and open access to arms3. 
Furthermore, geographical locations make it 
susceptible to terrorist dangers. Socio-
economic difficulties lead to radicalism as 
while these complications are mutual they 
make available ground for extremists4.  

Contact with terrorism in both ways direct 
and indirect develops fear and anxiety 
amongst stayers5. Because of these incidents 
schools and universities remained closed for 

some period of time in the country secondly 
it was followed by the news of expected 
future terrorist attacks on universities and 
schools. It additionally prevails the feelings 
of uncertainty among students and academic 
staff6. 

In one study, when participants were asked 
whether Pakistan should convert into a 
secular state, most chose against the 
proposition. Most of the participants 
thought that all jihadi organizations need to 
be banned. The problem, consequently 
found, is a need for more intelligent thinking 
plus a substitute narrative dialogue in the 
society as a result it will allow the youth to 
ponder 'out of the box'7. 

Bonanno et al. (2010) stated that people react 
differently to trauma. First of all, there are 
some people who show severe stress and 
anxiety, and it does not reduce with the 
passage of time. Secondly, some people 
display very few or no symptoms at all of the 
psychopathologies; nonetheless, later on, 
they produce some. Thirdly, a number of 
people initially show psychopathology, and 
afterward, they recover completely. Finally, 
some people are resilient and adjust well in 
times of stress and trauma8. 

Taking footsteps to form resilience is the 
ability to adjust well to unforeseen ups and 
downs; in addition, events can aid people in 
managing distress and uncertainty. 
Numerous steps are vibrant parts of a 
healthy way of life, and accepting them can 
progress overall emotional and physical 
well-being.  

"According Luthar & Cicchetti, (2000), 
resilience is a dynamic process wherein 
individuals display positive adaptation 
despite experiences of significant adversity 
or trauma”9.  



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Initially, resilience was frequently well-
defined in simple terms of doing well in the 
phase of adversity or trauma. Early work 
concentrated on knowing naturally present 
resilience. Novel work has shifted struggles 
to encourage resilience in individuals10. 

Resilience is perceived as a representative 
that allows individuals not only to overcome 
hardship but then also to succeed while 
facing difficult situations11. 

Resilience in expressing hardship is the 
capacity to move forward in adverse 
conditions, a human reaction that indicates 
good health, both psychologically and 
physically. People who are resilient were set 
up to enjoy enhanced physical in addition 
mental health and lesser levels of 
depression, apprehension, sleep disorders, 
and PTS, related to people who have less 
level of resilience12,13,14. 

In order to deal with stressors, individuals 
use different ways, which are known as 
coping. According to Celestin & Celestin-
Westreich, (2006), Coping is the vibrant 
progression that inclines to function as a 
robust moderator amongst stressors and a 
Person's psychological health effects15. 

Coping is also defined as "Constantly 
changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to 
manage specific external and internal 
demands that are appraised as taxing or 
exceeding the person's resources" 16. 

Lazarus (as cited)17 mentioned coping as the 
capacity of a person to overcome perplexing 
and critical situations. Coping styles show a 
substantial part in dealing with the 
traumatic event; if Coping styles are 
productive, they will act as a buffer against 
the expected potential undesirable 
responses, and if Coping styles are 
nonproductive, they further enhance the 

trauma and makes the process of accepting 
certainty and moving on slow18. 

Tatar & Amram (2007) conducted research 
on 330 participants, which were Israeli 
adolescents; their coping strategies were 
investigated about terrorist attacks were 
investigated as they have witnessed 
substantial constant terrorist attacks in past 
years. Results showed that adolescents 
employ healthy coping approaches 
compared to non-healthy coping approaches 
when dealing with terrorist attacks19.  

As stated by Glennie, “Although coping and 
resilience are related constructs, they are 
distinct in that coping refers to a wide set of 
skills and purposeful responses to stress, 
whereas resilience refers to positive 
adaptation in response to serious adversity” 

20. 

It is essential to know about students' 
concerns regarding terrorism, as Pakistan is 
highly affected by terrorism. Students' 
capacity to bounce back and return to 
everyday life (resilience) and the coping 
strategies they employ make a significant 
change in their lives.  The present research 
will explore students' capacity to cope 
despite setbacks, barriers,  
and limited resources.  

The present research studied University 
Students' Concerns about Terrorism, 
Resilience, Resilience, and Coping 
Strategies. 

1) There will be a difference in the resilience
level among Karachi university students.

2) There will be a positive correlation
between Anti-terrorism, peace, and
female emancipation among students of
Karachi University.

3) There will be a gender difference in Anti-
terrorism, peace, female emancipation,
resilience, and coping strategies scores.



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4) There will be a difference in the scores of
Anti-terrorism, peace, female
emancipation, resilience, and coping
strategies among faculties.

Methodology 
A quantitative, cross-sectional study 
research design is employed in the current 
study. The Ethics Committee of SDPI 
approves the research project. Self-
administered questionnaires: Students' 
Concerns about Terrorism (SCT) Scale, Brief 
Resilience Scale, and Brief COPE Inventory 
were filled out by 387 students.   

Sample 
The sample was drawn from different 
faculties of the University of Karachi. (1)  
Faculties of Social Sciences, Islamic Studies, 
Education, Law, and Administrative 
Sciences (2) Faculties of Science, 
Engineering, Pharmacy, and Medicine.     

Selection of sample size: The ideal sample 
size was found to be 381 and collected.   

Instruments 
Informed Consent: Participants were 
informed about the nature of the study and 
were assured about their confidentiality and 
their right to withdraw at any point.  

The students' Concerns about Terrorism 
(SCT) scale is developed by Shukat et al. in 
201621. It is comprised of three subscales 
Anti-terrorism, peace, and female 
emancipation. It includes a total of 15 items. 
Reliabilities of subscales of the Students' 
Concerns about Terrorism (SCT) scale were 
0.82, 0.75, and 0.84. It is a five-point Likert 
scale, with responses ranging from strongly 
agree to disagree strongly. 

The brief Resilience Scale is developed by 
Smith B. et al. in 200822. In order to get a total 
score, add the answers varying from 1-5 for 
all six items. Divide the total sum by the total 
number of questions answered. Total score 
range from 6-30. Interpretation of Scores; 
1.00-2.99 shows low resilience, 3.00-4.30 
shows typical resilience, 4.31-5.00 shows 
high resilience.  

The Brief Cope was developed as a short 
version of the original 60-item COPE scale 
(Carver et al., 1989)23, which was 
theoretically resultant based on various 
models of coping. It consists of only 28 
statements. It has the following subscales; 
Self-distraction, Active Coping, Denial, 
Substance use, Use of emotional support, 
Use of instrumental support, Behavioral 
disengagement, Venting, Positive reframing, 
Planning, Humor, Acceptance, Religion, & 
Self-blame. 

Procedure 
Students were approached personally at the 
university. They were briefed entirely about 
the purpose and nature of the research, and 
it was assured that the information obtained 
would only be used for research purposes. A 
consent form, demographic sheet, Students' 
concerns about terrorism scale, Brief 
resilience scale, and COPE inventory were 
administered to students. The students were 
thanked for participating in the research, 
and a token of appreciation folder was given 
to every participant, and the results will be 
analyzed. Incomplete forms were discarded 
before data entry. 



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Results 

Table 1: Summary of demographic variables. 

Variables N(%) 

Gender 
Men  99(25.6) 

Women 287(74.2) 

Age 

18 107(27.6) 

19-20 209(54.0) 

23-25 69(17.8) 

25+ 2(0.5) 

Faculties 
Social Sciences, Islamic Studies, Education, Law, and Administrative 
Sciences 

215 (53.3) 

Science, Engineering, Pharmacy, and Medicine 172 (42.8) 

Table 1 shows the number and percentage of Men and Women with their ages and faculties. 

While , Table 2 shows the resilience level in which 93.8% of participants are showing resilience 

in the normal range. 

Table 2: Showing Rate of Resilience. 

Variables Cut off Interpretation N(%) 

Resilience 

1.00-2.99 Low Resilience 12(3.1) 

3.00-4.30 Normal resilience 363(93.8) 

4.31-5.00 High Resilience 12(3.1) 

Total 387(100) 

A significant positive correlation was found among Scores of Anti-Terrorism, Peace, and Female 

emancipation (Table 3). 

Table 3: showing Correlation among Scores of Anti-Terrorism, Peace, Female emancipation 

Correlation matrix of the three Subscales (N=387). 

Peace 
Female 

Anti-terrorism 
emancipation 

Peace ----- 0.398** 0.466** 

Female emancipation 0.398** ____ 0.429** 

Antiterrorism 0.466** 0.429** ___ 

 **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 

Table 4 shows the impact of the Peace Score on the Anti-terrorism score. The R2 value of .218 

reveals that the predictor explains a 21.8% variance in the outcome variable with F (1, 386) = 107, 

p > .05.  



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Table 4: Linear Regression Coefficients of Peace Score on Anti-terrorism score. 

Variables B β SE 

Constant 3.021 .370 

Peace .545 .466 .053 
*R2 .218

**Note. N = 387

Table 5 shows the impact of the Peace Score on the Anti-terrorism score. The R2 value of .218 

reveals that the predictor explains an 18.4% variance in the outcome variable with F (1, 386) = 

86.66, p > .05. 

Table 5: Linear Regression Coefficients of Female Emancipation Score on Anti-terrorism 

score. 

Variables B β SE 

Constant 3.677 .341 

Peace .336 .429 .036 
*R2 .184

**Note. N = 387

Table 6 shows Multivariate Tests. There is a statistically significant difference between gender in 

scores of Anti-terrorism, peace, female emancipation, and coping strategies (Active Coping, 

Substance Use, and Humor) 

Table 6: Table showing descriptive of Subscales of Concern about terrorism (Anti-terrorism, 

Peace, Female Emancipation), resilience, and Coping strategies between Genders. 

Variable 

Gender 

Male Female 

mean±SD mean±SD 

Anti-terrorism 7.13±3.17 6.46±2.49 

Peace 7.63±2.67 6.29±2.06 

Female Emancipation 10.26±8.28 4.36±2.88 

Resilience 3.39±.65 3.43±.59 

Self-Destruction 5.25±1.60 5.68±1.69 

Active Coping  5.84±1.67 6.04±1.56 

Denial 4.59±1.70 4.41±1.84 

Substance Use 3.13±1.69 2.34±1.03 

Emotional Support 4.86±1.49 4.97±1.79 

Instrumental Support 5.38±1.91 5.25±1.87 

Behavioral Disengagement 4.34±1.59 4.15±1.61 

Venting 4.58±1.74 4.56±1.58 

Positive Reframing  5.54±1.66 5.92±1.65 

Planning 5.80±1.69 5.86±2.03 

Humor 4.32±2.00 3.97±1.85 

Acceptance 5.85±1.73 5.81±1.74 

Religion 6.11±1.81 6.45±1.67 

Self-Blame 4.65±1.85 4.61±1.86 



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Multivariate Test for Intercept and Gender 

      Multivariate Tests 

Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig. Partial Eta Squared 

Intercept 

Pillai's Trace .986 1462.388b 18.000 368.000 0.000 .986 

Wilks' Lambda .014 1462.388b 18.000 368.000 0.000 .986 

Hotelling's Trace 71.530 1462.388b 18.000 368.000 0.000 .986 

Roy's Largest Root 71.530 1462.388b 18.000 368.000 0.000 .986 

Gender 

Pillai's Trace .178 4.424b 18.000 368.000 .000 .178 

Wilks' Lambda .822 4.424b 18.000 368.000 .000 .178 

Hotelling's Trace .216 4.424b 18.000 368.000 .000 .178 

Roy's Largest Root .216 4.424b 18.000 368.000 .000 .178 
a. Design: Intercept + Gender
b. Exact statistic

Table 7: Table showing descriptive of Subscales of Concern about terrorism (Anti-terrorism, 

Peace, Female Emancipation), resilience, and Coping strategies between Faculties. 

Variable 

Faculties 

Social Sciences, Islamic Studies, Education, 
Law, and Administrative Sciences 

Science, Engineering, 
Pharmacy, and Medicine 

mean±SD mean±SD 

Anti-terrorism 6.76±2.61 6.47±2.78 

Peace 6.95±2.27 6.23±2.29 

Female 
Emancipation 

8.86±3.37 8.69±3.50 

Resilience 3.43±.61 3.40±.59 

Self-Destruction 5.48±1.60 5.68±1.76 

Active Coping  5.92±1.60 6.08±1.58 

Denial 4.33±1.86 4.62±1.73 

Substance Use 2.48±1.24 2.62±1.32 

Emotional Support 4.99±1.68 4.89±1.77 

Instrumental 
Support 

5.28±1.96 5.29±1.77 

Behavioral 
Disengagement 

4.19±1.6 4.21±1.59 

Venting 4.68±1.53 4.43±1.72 

Positive Reframing  5.78±1.69 5.87±1.63 

Planning 5.93±2.12 5.73±1.70 

Humor 4.00±1.87 4.13±1.93 

Acceptance 5.86±1.77 5.77±1.70 

Religion 6.35±1.66 6.38±1.78 

Self-Blame 4.67±1.83 4.55±1.88 



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Multivariate Tests 

Effect Value F 
Hypothesis 

df 
Error 

df 
Sig. 

Partial Eta 
Squared 

Intercept 

Pillai's Trace .989 1841.241b 18.000 368.000 0.000 .989 

Wilks' Lambda .011 1841.241b 18.000 368.000 0.000 .989 

Hotelling's Trace 90.061 1841.241b 18.000 368.000 0.000 .989 

Roy's Largest 
Root 

90.061 1841.241b 18.000 368.000 0.000 .989 

Faculties 

Pillai's Trace .059 1.274b 18.000 368.000 .201 .059 

Wilks'lambda .941 1.274b 18.000 368.000 .201 .059 

Hotelling's Trace .062 1.274b 18.000 368.000 .201 .059 

Roy's Largest 
Root 

.062 1.274b 18.000 368.000 .201 .059 

Discussion 
The present study was carried out to 
investigate University Students' Concerns 
about Terrorism, Resilience, Resilience, and 
Coping Strategies. Our country Pakistan has 
undergone many problems due to terrorism 
in each walk of life, comprising the 
dissection of society, political uncertainty, 
foodstuff crises, and economic decline24.  

The first variable investigated in our study is 
Concerns about Terrorism; it has three 
subscales Anti-terrorism, peace, and social 
context (Attitudes to modern female 
emancipation).  

A significant positive correlation was found 
among Scores of Anti-Terrorism, Peace, and 
Female emancipation (table 3). The result 
shows a Positive relationship between peace 
and female emancipation, a Positive 
relationship between peace and anti-
terrorism, and a positive relationship 
between female emancipation and anti-
terrorism. Regression analysis shows that 
the predictor (peace score) explains a 21.8% 
variance in the outcome variable (Anti-
terrorism score). The predictor (Female 
Emancipation score) explains an 18.4% 
variance in the outcome variable (Anti-
terrorism score). 

Medical College (RMC) regarding terrorist 
attacks on educational institutions and their 
impact 34 percent of the students, mentioned 
that their education had been affected by the 
wave of terrorism, while 58 percent of 
students mentioned terrorist attacks had 
affected their mental health status and about 
two-thirds perceived that their extra-
curricular activities and social activities had 
been affected due to terrorism. About 43 
percent of students had accepted terrorism 
as a part of their lives; however, 80 percent 
of students were hopeful that terrorism 
would end soon. In 2015   a study examined 
the incidence of psychological problems and 
their predictors in 1048 Chinese college 
students from Shanghai. 47 percent of 
students had anxiety complications25. 

Education can play a vital role in developing 
patience amongst students or forthcoming 
citizens26; in a culture with diverse religious 
viewpoints, it is challenging to get coherence 
in opinions about peace, terrorism, and 
female emancipation27.  

The minds of younger individuals are more 
responsive to cognitive and affective 
modification28. So when the links between 
peace, terrorism, and female emancipation 



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have been established, there is a framework 
for future policy changes. 

Research studies have demonstrated that the 
sociopolitical effect of women is a robust 
forecaster of less violence in the nation29,30,31. 
An investigation conducted by Robinson 
displays a negative relationship between 
women's emancipation and terrorism, 
suggesting that civilizations which permit 
women to work without restrictions are less 
susceptible to terrorist events. Based on the 
evidence obtained, it can be specified that 
societies are more peaceful, which favors 
female empowerment 32.  

Our Second significant variable of the study 
is resilience. "Resilience is a process of 
adapting well in the face of adversity"33. 

Our study shows the average level of 
resilience among students of Karachi 
University (table 2). One study concluded 
that college scholars with good levels of 
resilience exhibited enhanced adjustment to 
university34.  

According to the study on undergraduates of 
Rawalpindi, It is apparent that deliberate 
actions of violence/terror are more potent as 
compared to the natural adversities35.  

A study was conducted in 2011 on students 
of four universities in Karachi. 291 
undergraduate students completed self-
administered forms. Most of the students 
had mild stress levels as a result of the 
continuous hazard of terrorism; however, a 
lesser no of students had severe stress levels. 
Potential reasons for resilience and mild 
stress levels can be the past of Karachi's 
internal clashes and its lengthy period of 
exposure to terrorism36.  

Multivariate analysis findings show a 
statistically significant difference between 
gender in scores of Anti-terrorism, peace, 

female emancipation, and coping strategies 
(Active Coping, Substance Use, and Humor). 
Male participants scored high on all three 
subscales of concerns about terrorism, Anti-
Terrorism, Peace, and Female emancipation. 
In coping strategies, females scored high on 
Active Coping; males scored high on 
Substance Use and Humor. 

Another Multivariate analysis between 
faculties in the scores of Anti-terrorism, 
peace, female emancipation, and coping 
strategies conducted shows no significant 
difference in variables concerning faculties.  

Women are more likely to practice active 
Coping plus social support and problem-
focused coping37. 

It was revealed that males respond to 
unpleasant situations by picking either 
vibrant adapting methodology or otherwise 
avoidant actions, such as alcohol or 
medication use 38,39. 

The positive effects of humor may be 
described by the role of humor in the 
cognitive appraisal of threatening, hence 
stressful, situations. The study outcomes 
show that a healthier sense of humor assists 
additional positive cognitive appraisals40. 

Some investigators have also investigated 
gender differences in using humor as a 
coping mechanism and concluded that men 
use humor more often than women 41. 

It is proposed that the causes and impact of 
terrorism be shared with young students 
because these views impact equality 
between genders and inculcate peace in 
society. The capacity to bounce back from 
trauma must be enhanced, so we do not 
collapse in hard times.   



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Conclusion 
The finding shows that most of the 
participant's resilience is in the normal 
range, which is a good sign. A significant 
positive relationship was found between 
Anti-Terrorism, Peace, and Female 
emancipation, and those who had anti-
terrorist views favored peace and Female 
emancipation. Further analysis revealed that 
male participants scored high on all three 
subscales of concerns about terrorism (Anti-
Terrorism, Peace, and Female emancipation) 
as compared to female participants. No 
difference was found in the level of resilience 
between male and female participants. In 
coping strategies, females scored high on 
Active Coping, and males scored high on 
Substance Use and Humor; no difference 
was found in the frequency of remaining 
coping strategies. 

Acknowledgment 
This project was funded by SDPI 
(Sustainable Development Policy Institute). 

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APP| Published By AEIRC| Volume 9 Issue 2 

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