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©Advance Education Institute & Research Centre-2014                                                                                             

ASSESSMENT OF MAJOR PHYSICAL STRESSORS AND ITS 

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY; A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW 
 

Syed Zain Azher 1 Shamoon Noushad 1 & Sadaf Ahmed 1&2 

1. Psychophysiology Research Division, Advance Educational Institute & Research Centre 

2. Neurovascular Physiology & Biophysics Unit, Department of Physiology, University of Karachi 

Corresponding author: zain@aeirc-edu.com 

 

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this review was to highlight the concept and understanding of physical stress and to discuss its 

Psychophysiological mechanisms along with characteristics and major causes. The environmental and physical changes that are responsible for 

alterations in the homeostasis of the body is simply identified as physical stress. The brain is to interpret experiences as alarming or non-alarming 

which trigger the physiological and behavioral responses in each situation. We gathered a literature data from different published articles, original 

research papers & online sources. We hypothesized that the continuous imbalances of physiological mechanism due physical and environmental 

stimulus can cause physical stress and it is concluded that the major factors of physical stress includes injury, excessive exercise, noise, 

pregnancy, workload, pressures and temperature with the involvements of psycho-physiological mechanism. 

KEYWORDS: Stress, Psychophysiology, Physical Stress, Stressors, Psychological, Physiological 

 

INTRODUCTION:  

Stress is a physical state of the brain and body that develops when 

physical stimuli affect the homeostasis (Sadaf, 2013), these 

situations or stimuli are considered as stress provoking are known 

as stressors (Stevens, 2013). It is known that if the stimulus 

disturbs the state of equilibrium, it could lead to structural or 

functional changes (Lazarus, 1986). Physical stress also defined as 

the force applied to a given area of biological tissue or is the 

response to environmental pressures and demands. Stress occurs 

when the demands upon an individual surpass the resources in 

body to meet such demands. Extrinsic factors are factors outside of 

the body that can influence either the level of stress on tissues or 

the thresholds for tissue adaptation and injury. However physical 

stress levels that exceed the maintenance range  (i.e. overload) 

result in increased tolerance of tissues to subsequent stresses, so 

any exerted force that is characterized by vigorous bodily activity 

can lead to altered physiological responses is counted as physical 

stress (Syed, 2014). Moreover any exerted force that is 

characterized by vigorous bodily activity can lead to altered 

physiological responses is counted as physical stress such as 

aerobics, work outs, injury or aches. It may also count on physical 

traumas as cuts, burns, sprains, broken bones, surgery, etc. In other 

words physical stress is bodily response to substantial pressures 

such as exertion, noise, sickness or exercises (Sadaf, 2013). 

Excessive exercises, noise, are major physical stress stressors 

which change or disturb the body homeostasis. This 

comprehensive review is divided into two sections: (a) the 

Psychophysiology of stress, (b) to highlight the major physical 

stress stressors. 

Stress affects the central nervous system leading indirectly to the 

modulation of the activity of steroid, catecholamine, peptide and 

opioid systems. It also affects other body systems: behavior, the 

immune system, cardiovascular responses and the gastrointestinal 

tract. In response to stress, a cascade of neurohumoral events 

chiefly at the level of the (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical) 

HPA axis, is triggered, the result of which is the termination of the 

stress reaction leading to normalization i.e. homeostasis (Miller, 

2007).Temperature affects a broad spectrum of cellular 

components and metabolism, and temperature extremes impose 

stresses of variable severity that depend on the rate of temperature 

change, duration and intensity (Sung, 2003).moreover at the time 

of cell damage or injuries body start the process of coagulations 

which disturb the body homeostasis however excessive blood loss 

from a damaged vessel can lead to an increased risk of obstructive 

clotting thrombosis or bleeding hemorrhage (Desborough, 2000). 

Stressors effects may vary according to age and sex, individual 

variations play a major part in this respect in female at the time of 

pregnancy body feel constant physical stress due to changes of 

stress hormone, respiratory rate decreases excessive need of 

oxygen, increases blood pressure and increase insulin resistance 

which led to increase blood glucose level changes in body weight, 

total body water, plasma proteins, body fat, and cardiac output is 

seen (Anderson, 2005).During exercise Increase in the blood 

pressure, heart rate, vascular resistance and stress hormone levels 

are also observed and it also reported that weather high and low 

responders to exercise stress would show corresponding HPA 

reactivity to psychological stress. (Anita, 1999) Physical work load 

that sets high demands on muscle groups which cause back pain it 

is the main predictors of physical stress (Grant, 2006). 

 

Negative physical stress 

If any physical stressor triggers HPA axis for a long period of time 

and surge the stress hormonal level that cause tension and that may 

lead to illness, pain, feeling of unpleasant, anxiety decreases 

performance and overexertion is term as negative physical stress. 

Chronic physical stress that stays approximately for weeks or 

months it can weaken the immune system and cause high blood 

pressure, depression, fatigue and gastrointestinal problem and even 

heart diseases. In meticulous excessive epinephrine can be harmful 

to your heart. 

 



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Positive physical stress 

If any physical stressor triggers HPA axis for a short period of time 

normally and provides enthusiasm and enjoyment, as well as 

consideration and energy for deadlines, exercising such as jogging 

or lifting weights entering new situations, motivation for new 

challenges and achieving maximum performance is term as 

positive physical stress. In addition, there are various health 

advantages with a little bit of physical stress. Researchers believe 

that some stress can help to make stronger the immune system. For 

example physical stress can get better your heart works and protect 

your body from infection. However individuals who experienced 

modest levels of stress prior to surgery were able to make progress 

faster than individuals who had low or high levels. 

 
 

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF PHYSICAL STRESS 

The fight or flight response named by Cannon and Selye in the 

1930s is a pattern of physiological responses that prepare the 

organism to emergency. When the external balance is disputed our 

body changes its internal balance accordingly. The fact that 

modern problems do not require such means is exactly the setting 

of stress-related problems. The manifestations of the F or F are 

mainly through two channels: the sympathetic branch of the ANS 

and the Endocrine system both are closely interconnected  The 

ANS effect many bodily functions instantly and directly, while 

hormones have slower yet wider effect on the body both hormones 

and neurones communicate with cells and create the delicate 

dynamic balance between the body and its surrounding, through 

paired systems and feedback mechanisms by acute and chronic 

pathway (See flow chart) (Ader, 1995; Miller, 2007). Increased 

heart rate, blood pressure and respiration and heart pump more 

blood to the muscles, supplying more oxygen to the muscles and 

heart and lung system. Allowing rapid energy use, and accelerating 

metabolism for emergency actions. Increased sugar rates in the 

blood. Thickening of the blood to increase oxygen supply, 

facilitate better defense from infections  and to stop bleeding 

quickly, prioritizing - increased blood supply to peripheral muscles 

and heart, to motor and basic-functions regions in the brain; 

decreased blood supply to digestive system and irrelevant brain 

regions, this also causes secretion of body waists, leaving the body 

lighter. Secretion of adrenaline and other stress hormones to 

further increase the response and to strengthen relevant systems & 

Secretion of endorphins is a natural painkiller, providing an instant 

defense against pain (Atkinson, 1996). The immune system 

protects the body with help of stress hormone; cortisol is 

responsible for interfering with the production the immune system 

components like leucocytes and antibodies. However aldosterone 

is another stress hormone that helps your body keep sodium which 

keeps more water in your blood, increasing blood pressure and 

volume. In chronic physical stress immune system is unable to 

respond to hormonal control, and consequently, produce levels of 

inflammation that promote disease such as cardiovascular, asthma 

and autoimmune disorders. Repeated firing of the hypothalamic-

pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system 

(SNS) caused constant state of hypervigilance. This dysregulation 

can contribute to chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, 

Metabolic Syndrome, Autoimmune disease obesity, diabetes 

(Syed, 2013). 

 

PHYSICAL STRESS STRESSORS  

We try to highlight the major physical stressors in this review to 

explore or differentiate from other stress types.  

 

Noise: 

Noise is the most encountered stressor, produced by urban traffic, 

air craft’s from work environment and house hold appliances. 

Long term experience to unavoidable noise stress induces 

exhaustion, defeat, annoyance followed by decreased muscle 

movement, social contacts and mood changes (Shankar, 

1999).Noise affects the neurotransmitter levels in different regions 

of brain reduces dendritic count, elevates plasma corticosterone 

levels. It disrupts the activity or balance of life and causes 

psychological and physiological or behavioral changes in people. It 

has been reported to produce atrophy of dendrites and alterations in 

neurotransmitter levels. Even low levels of repeated noise can 

cause stress. Noise is an unavoidable stressor of daily modern life 

and a large segment of population is exposed to high levels of 

noise. Evidence also shows that repeated stress produces atrophy 

of dendrites and alterations in neurotransmitter levels (Naqvi, 

2012). Exposure to noise constitutes a health risk. There is enough 

scientific facts that noise exposure can induce hearing impairment, 

hypertension and ischemic heart disease, annoyance, sleep 

disturbance (Passchier-Vermeer, 2000). There is growing evidence 

suggesting that noise induced peripheral hearing loss can also 

induce functional changes in the central auditory system (Sun, 

2008) is not responsible only for temporary or permanent hearing 

loss, but can also induce transient or permanent tinnitus, loudness 

recruitment and hyperacusis as well as reported to decreases the 

immune functions by reducing natural killer cells (Kay, 1998). 

Uneven loud noise during pregnancy had a significant effect on 

both male and female offspring’s, low weight birth, impaired 

cognition and post natal growth (Shankar, 1999). 

 

Pregnancy: 

Pregnancy is characterized by dynamic changes in multiple body 

systems resulting in increased basal oxygen consumption and in 

changes in energy substrate use by different organs including the 

feto placental unit. From early pregnancy the human placenta 

influences maternal homeostasis. Nitric oxide (NO) is also locally 

produced by the placenta and together with other reactive nitrogen 

species contributes to potential oxidative stress (Dotsch, 2001) 

While confirmation of a pregnancy is often exciting news, it can 

also be the beginning of a very stressful period in the lives of the 

parents to be. Stress also affects labour.  The stress response has a 

profound effect on the female hormonal system and can, in some 

cases, inhibit contractions and prolong the process (Anderson,  



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©Advance Education Institute & Research Centre-2014                                                                                             

2005). During pregnancy excessive physical stress may have 

negative influences on fetal development or a birth of low weight 

infant (March of Dimes, 2006). However normal stress hormones 

are necessary for normal fetal organ maturation and for preparing 

the fetus for extra uterine life (Challis, 2001; Hansen, 2000).There 

is an association between stress and cortisol secretion in human 

pregnancy. Recent findings in non-pregnant women show that a 

stress related hormone response is mainly found in evening cortisol 

levels (Powell, 2002). New studies found differences in the 

associations between chronic stress in early and late pregnancy and 

cortisol levels indicating that the response to chronic stress is 

dependent on the stage of the pregnancy (Obel, 2005). 

 

Exercise: 

Exercise is other stressor which lead to body in stress moreover is 

totally depends on duration and types of exercise aerobic and 

anaerobic. Aerobic exercises use the arm and leg muscles and give 

the heart and lungs a continuous workout. Anaerobic exercises  

build and tone muscles but are not as beneficial to the heart and 

lungs as aerobic activities. During anaerobic exercise your body 

builds up lactic acid, which causes uneasiness and fatigue at 

sustained levels. For this reason anaerobic exercise or high 

intensity exercise happens in short bursts. A number of studies 

have shown that psychological well-being can be influenced by 

physical activity/training. Physical activation is very much a 

stressor that affects the body’s physiological stress systems 

(Doherty, 2000; Hawley, 2002). The release of adrenaline, 

noradrenaline and cortisol that occurs during physical training is 

similar to the release that occurs in connection with an acute 

psychological stress reaction (Borer, 2003). However the prevalent 

view is that regular physical activity of moderate to average 

intensity improves the function of the immune system and can 

reduce sensitivity to infections. However, hard or prolonged 

exercise in endurance sports can lead to immunosuppression and 

greater infection sensitivity (Sweden book) although, it appears 

that stressful stimuli differentially activate the HPA, it is not 

known whether a high responder to exercise stress will also be a 

high responder to psychological stress. This is an important issue 

because stress reactivity may have implications for health status. It 

appears that HPA reactivity at the two ends of the continuum, hypo 

and hyperreactivity, may influence an individual’s susceptibility to 

developing various psychological, metabolic, inflammatory, and 

autoimmune disorders (Kirschbaum, 1995). Several studies have 

suggested that there is an increased risk of respiratory infections in 

subjects doing heavy exercise (Health, 1991). In literature that has 

been largely unconcerned with aerobic fitness, certain 

cardiovascular and biochemical changes have been reported during 

psychosocial stress, which involves little physical work (Singh, 

1999).  

 



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Workload 

Employees continually reported that work load is a significant 

source of stress and they are typically feel tense or stressed out 

during the workday moreover of employees reporting at time of 

overwork they make a lot of mistakes at work (Galinsky, 2005; 

American Psychological Association, 2009). Physical work that 

sets high demands on main muscle groups, for example, in terms 

of manual materials handling, static-postural load, repetitive 

movements, and large output of force, is still the main element of 

many jobs (Pongian, 2002) Low back pain, a leading cause of 

disability in the industrialized world, is well recognized as having 

a multifactorial etiology. The main predictors of back pain include 

physical stress example, driving, prolonged lifting forceful or 

repetitive movements involving the back (Punnet, 1991). 

Workload as an aspect of objective reality of a job can be viewed 

as a direct source of stress, such as the frequency of any task or the 

nature of the task itself (Ezra, 2010). However physical workload 

has been identified within the frame of the sudden unexplained 

death syndrome (Gogh, 1993). 

 

Temperature 

Changing in temperature is a major cause of disturbing the body 

physiology. The nervous system is important in thermoregulation 

as the processes of homeostasis and temperature control are 

centered in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus maintains the set 

point for body temperature through reflexes that cause 

vasodilatations and sweating when the body is too warm, or 

vasoconstriction and shivering when the body is too cold however, 

if this process occur for a long period of time it may cause physical 

stress. 

 

Injury  

The stress response to surgery, injury or trauma comprises a 

number of hormonal changes initiated by neuronal activation of 

HPA (axis). This is a part of the systemic reaction to injury which 

includes a wide range of endocrinological, immunological and 

hematological effects (Desborough, 2000). Physical stress is the 

force, or load, acting on a given area of tissue (Tipler, 1982). 

Tissues accommodate to physical stresses by altering their 

structure and composition to best meet the mechanical demands of 

routine loading. However Biological tissues exhibit responses to 

physical stress. Each response is predicted to occur within a 

defined range along a continuum of stress levels  

Specific thresholds define the upper and lower stress levels for 

each characteristic tissue response by decreased stress tolerance 

(eg, atrophy), maintenance, increased stress tolerance (e.g. 

hypertrophy), injury, and death (Michael). Similar in the 

musculoskeletal and integumentary systems, excessive physical 

stress can injure tissues in the cardiovascular/pulmonary system. 

Mechanical stretch induced by high blood pressure is thought to be 

an initial event that leads to cardiac hypertrophy and eventual 

cardiac failure (Yamazaki, 1999). High blood pressure is an 

established risk factor for conditions such as stroke, myocardial 

infarction, and atherosclerotic disease (Taylor,1999). 

 

CONCLUSION: 

o Stress is the summated response of the biological 

reactions to any adverse stimulus, physical, mental, or emotional, 

internal or external, that tends to disturb the homeostasis of an 

organism (Erskine, 1972). Environment is an important contributor 

to life style. Environmental stresses from noise & heat cause 

physical dysfunction in people (Schachter, 1962). 

o Psychological symptoms are also consequences of 

many physical factors and can be defined as a set of interactions 

between the person and the environment.   

o Physical Stress not only affects the individual’s 

performance, work efficiency and group performance but also lost 

healthy shares in an increasingly competitive era, and may even 

jeopardize the survival of being in fast moving society (Kazmi, 

2008). 

o It is also essential to know the importance of physical 

workload affecting muscular work that can relate to productivity 

and work condition however the observations periods are needed 

to be selected so that they would be as demonstrative as possible 

(Yoopat, 2002). 

o At the time of pregnancy excessive physical stress may 

have negative influences on fetal growth or a birth of low weight 

infant (March of Dimes, 2006). 

o Noise disrupts the activity or balance of life and causes 

psycho-physiological changes. 

o Variations in environmental Temperatures, physical 

activity and tissue exposures to injury are ubiquitous physical 

stress situations that also involve biochemical changes in body. 

o The overall knowledge of physical stress is very 

relevant in the field of psychology, physiology and 

psychophysiology as it is not mostly considered to cause above 

mentioned effects. These day to day exposures to such stressors 

have the potentials to provoke acute as well as chronic stress 

conditions and need to be explored further. 

 

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