on the philosphic foundation of science charles c. nweke abstract this paper comes as an attempt to restate the place of philosophy in the evolution of human development and history. it represents the bid to address seeming, subtle and vocal moves to denigrate philosophy amidst the reckoned progress of science and technology and more worrisome, deny it of an age long titlemother of all sciences. the paper reechoes, by tracing the origin of science, the fundamental role of the mother philosophy by being and begetting science as its ancient offspring. it equally articulates the time and circumstances that informed the independence of the basic disciplines of science from philosophy. the paper‘s synopsis is the position that all the fields of science have their remote foundation in philosophy. keywords: philosophy, science, ancient era, modern period 1. introduction the attempt to reaffirm the philosophic foundation of science, at the present era of seeming over glorification of science based on its huge advancement would portend a sought for intellectual trouble especially of science scholars. nevertheless, the place of philosophy as the crib of human knowledge, development and civilization remains an undiluted fact hinged on known and recorded history. science and the fields with which it is currently known, this paper posits, did not begin as independent area/s of knowledge. it was rather birthed much after initial philosophers‘ endeavours at wondering to understand the universe and the fundamental element/s with which it is constituted. there have been concerted and subtle attempt to denigrate this historical fact, thereby denying the place of philosophy in foundation of human knowledge inquiry. these attempts present either as arguments that the known foremost philosophers of ancient time were basically scientists or that philosophy is part of science. there are even claims by individual fields of science to be the harbinger of all knowledge. the content of this paper begins with a concise articulation of the origin of science tracing that history from the time of ancient greek thinkers. this is followed by a section on how some basic areas of science were studied as philosophy. the section on the philosophy as the mother of all science was preceded by an exposition of period of independence of science from philosophy. nweke on the philosophic foundation of … 2. origin of science history of science cannot be objectively chronicled without reference to its philosophical origin. that science has philosophical foundation is not a product of mere philosophic speculation, but a historical verifiable fact. what is today known as science and its specific areas began with the ancient and foremost known philosophers‘ attempt at inquiry into the universe in the bid to uncover the basic elements that constitute reality. the reckoned beginning of philosophy around sixth century bce saw the emergence of the known first scientists of western history. the ancient greek thinkers such as thales, anaximander, parmenides, heraclitus, etc popularly known as the pre-socratic philosophers, presented the first recorded basic element of naturewater, air, fire, earth. apart from proposing these basic elements, they provided the initial direction for the definition, meaning and future of the entire corpus of human knowledge based either on reason or/and sense data. study of classical philosophy is insightful in this regard. classical philosophy studies the fundamental problems concerning human existence through the eyes of our intellectual ancestors. many thinkers from classical times were pioneers of our modern philosophical and scientific ideas. the earliest beginnings of philosophy are traced back to the sixth century b.c.e., when the first scientists of western history, the pre socratics – among them thales, heraclitus and parmenides – advanced revolutionary theories concerning the natural world, human knowledge and humans‘ relationship with the gods. (www.classics.pitt.edu) it is very important to note that the ancient philosophical thoughts and works of preceding thinkers especially pythagoras, democritus, euclid, etc led to discoveries which informed many known and surviving scientific theories and fields. after the discovery of the four basic elements initiated by thales, the next point of enquiry was the question of ‗form‘ which saw pythagoras propounding a theory about number which gave birth to mathematics. in his ―history of science‖, williams(2018) submits that: the problem of form was first attacked systematically by the philosopher and cult leader pythagoras in the 6th century bce. legend has it that pythagoras became convinced of the primacy of number when he realized that the musical notes produced by a monochord were in simple ratio to the length of the string. qualities (tones) were reduced to quantities (numbers in integral ratios). thus was born mathematical physics, for this discovery provided the essential bridge between the world of physical experience and that of numerical relationships. number provided the answer to the question of the origin of forms and qualities. https://www.britannica.com/biography/pythagoras https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legend https://www.britannica.com/science/number-system https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integral https://www.britannica.com/science/mathematical-physics aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 one of the most popular mathematical theories, the pythagorean theorem credited to pythagoras, the first person to identify philosophy as love of wisdom, ranks among his other discoveries. the five regular solids, sphericality of the earth, the theory of proportions, the pythagorean tuning, division of the globe into five climatic zones and the identity of the morning and evening stars as planet venus are equally notable scientific discoveries of pythagoras. in further response to the primary element the universe is constituted, democritus championed the invention of atoms and proposed that matter is governed by atomic principles. thus:  everything is composed of ―atoms‖, which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible  between atoms, there lies empty space  atoms are indestructible  atoms have always been, and always will be, in motion  there are an infinite number of atoms, and kinds of atoms, which differ in shape, and size. (williams, 2015) matt williams(2015) captured the invention of democritus in these words: and along the way, many names stand out as examples of people who achieved breakthroughs and helped lay the foundations of our modern understanding. one such person is democritus, an ancient greek philosopher who is viewed by many as being the ―father of modern science‖. this is due to his theory of universe that is made up of tiny ―atoms‖, which bears a striking resemblance to modern atomic theory. a critical lens on these submissions could engender the argument tilting towards negating the philosophic claim of origin of science. it could be thought that those pioneers of science were only coincidentally philosophers whose scientific discoveries and theories were independent products of their scientific thinking without any recourse to and different from philosophy. it could be argued that they were doing science without calling it science. however, to the disappointment of such thought inclination, scientific outputs of the thinkers were products mainly of their metaphysical, cosmological and epistemological enquiries about what is,what it is like,the universe, truth and knowledge. in fact, the basic areas of science like mathematics, chemistry, physics, astronomy, medicine were studied in the ancient greek era as part of philosophy. spirkin avers to this effect that, ―many general nweke on the philosophic foundation of … guiding ideas that lie at the foundation of modern science were first enunciated by the perceptive force of philosophical thought.‖ in fact, ―hellenic science was built upon the foundations laid by thales and pythagoras. it reached its zenith in the works of aristotle and archimedes.‖(williams, 2018) 3. science was studied as philosophy the ancient philosophers of ages were not only inventors of science; they established avenues for cross fertilization of ideas and imparting of knowledge. they created academies and became foundational teachers of known history. in that era, greek academies were terrains mainly for study of philosophy. in fact, ―the latest theories of the unity of matter, motion, space and time, the unity of the discontinuous and continuous, the principles of the conservation of matter and motion, the ideas of the infinity and inexhaustibility of matter were stated in a general form in philosophy.‖(spirkin) aspects of science including mathematics, geometry, and medicine were studied as philosophy.dr. alannah freer in writing ―a history of science‖ captures this point succinctly. he stated that: pythagoras was the first scientist recorded to have taught the science of the ageless wisdom through mathematics, astronomy, geometry, harmonics, medicine and numerology in a form that has survived the test of time and is still recognisable today. after the time of the early ancient philosophers, one of the most popular greek philosophers of socratic period, plato emerged with popular philosophic and scientific achievements. he is known to have established an academy in quest for truth and propagation of knowledge. reflecting on his contribution to science, saugatadhikari(2019) notes: plato played a vital role in encouraging the greek intelligentsia to regard science as a theory. his academy taught arithmetic as part of philosophy, as pythagoras had done, and the first 10 years of a course at the academy included the study of geometry, astronomy, and music. the philosophical thoughts and works of aristotle, after plato, provided a redirection for human inquiry using scientific means. he invented logic and observation as crucial tools for the knowledge of the natural world. his other achievements in the areas of science reverberated so vigorously that he is considered by many scholars as the main inventor of science as well as the first real scientist. in the work, the lagoon: how aristotle invented sciencearmand marie leroi (2014) posits that: http://www.unimedliving.com/serge-benhayon/unimed-publishing/our-lineage.html aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 aristotle is considered by many to be the first scientist, although the term postdates him by more than two millennia. in greece in the fourth century bc, he pioneered the techniques of logic, observation, inquiry and demonstration. these would shape western philosophical and scientific culture through the middle ages and the early modern era, and would influence some aspects of the natural sciences even up to the eighteenth century. anselm h. amadilo and anthony j.p. kenny(2020) also hold the view that: aristotle‘s intellectual range was vast, covering most of the sciences and many of the arts,including biology, botany, chemistry, ethics, history, logic, metaphysics, rheto ric, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, physics, poetics, political theory, psychology, and zoology. he was the founder of formal logic, devising for it a finished system that for centuries was regarded as the sum of the discipline; and he pioneered the study of zoology, both observational and theoretical, in which some of his work remained unsurpassed until the 19th century. in the time of aristotle, science did not exist with the name ‗science‘, rather it existed as natural philosophy. its fields as they are known today were studied as philosophy. steve joyce (2018) philosopher and writer captured it thus: what we now call ―science‖ was predated by something called ―natural philosophy,‖ which attempted to infer what is true about the natural universe mainly by means of reasoning based on casual naked-eye observation. in the 4th century bce, aristotle believed that all the universe‘s secrets could eventually be deduced using logic based on the knowledge of his time. he then went on to deduce that the earth stands motionless at the center of the universe, while the planets (including the sun and moon) and stars were embedded in rotating, concentric, hollow crystal spheres, with the earth at their common center. 4. modern period apart from the foundational contributions of ancient philosophers, philosophy/science relations continued to reflect in the thoughts of many modern thinkers. rene descartes, the father of modern philosophy, and other notable 17 th and18th century philosophers contributed some popular scientific theories. descartes, for instance, proposed the universal conservation of motion. baruch spinoza‘s substance monism contains in his theory of monads, basis for universal scientific determinism. galileo is known for his popular theory of the shape of the earth. in the preceding times of the enlightenment, https://www.britannica.com/science/biology https://www.britannica.com/science/botany https://www.britannica.com/science/botany https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy https://www.britannica.com/topic/history https://www.britannica.com/topic/logic https://www.britannica.com/topic/metaphysics https://www.britannica.com/topic/rhetoric https://www.britannica.com/topic/rhetoric https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-mind https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-science https://www.britannica.com/science/physics-science https://www.britannica.com/science/psychology https://www.britannica.com/science/zoology https://www.britannica.com/topic/formal-logic https://www.quora.com/profile/steve-joyce-1 https://www.quora.com/profile/steve-joyce-1 nweke on the philosophic foundation of … newton and einstein‘s theories of absolute space and relativity respectively are responses to the philosophical inquiry about space and time. in the words of a. spirkin: we may also recall the cartesian reflex and the philosopher's proposition on the conservation of motion in the universe. on the general philosophical plane spinoza gave grounds for the universal principle of determinism. the idea of the existence of molecules as complex particles consisting of atoms was developed in the works of the french philosopher pierre gassendi and also russia's mikhail lomonosov. philosophy nurtured the hypothesis of the cellular structure of animal and vegetable organisms and formulated the idea of the development and universal connection of phenomena and the principle of the material unity of the world. lenin formulated one of the fundamental ideas of contemporary natural science— the principle of the inexhaustibility of matter—upon which scientists rely as a firm methodological foundation. 5. independence of science from philosophy various studies have shown that disciplines of science, from antiquity continued to be taken as philosophy for many centuries. the point of independence of science commenced with the gradual coming of the enlightenment age. modern science was actually born in 17 th century with the invention of instruments like microscope, telescope, barometer and clock. modern biology and chemistry began to be developed as independent fields in 18 th century. steve joyce (2018) philosopher and writer holds that, ―…the improved discipline continued to be called ―natural philosophy‖ until the 19th century, when the word ―science‖ was adopted to replace it.‖the acknowledgement, among scholars of science, of the philosophical foundation of science is not in doubt. american association for advancement of science (aaas) maintain in their ―history and philosophy of science‖ that: until the 19th century, natural science was primarily known as ―natural philosophy‖, and contemporary philosophy still maintains deep connections with science. some of the greatest intellectuals of all time were both scientists and philosophers. in the 17th century, descartes, leibniz, and pascal developed modern science and articulated its philosophical foundations. 6. teaching history of science in institutions the teaching of history of science in any institution of learning cannot be complete without the basic crucial account of how the initial philosophic endeavours of ancient thinkers shaped science. department of classics, university of pittsburg, usa, for instance, presents in its study course ‗history of science‘ that: the ancient greeks were the first mathematicians and scientists of the west. thinkers such as thales, anaximander, pythagoras and empedocles attempted to make sense of the world by studying the evidence they found in https://www.quora.com/profile/steve-joyce-1 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 it. anaximander proposed that the earth was a solitary body, floating free and unsupported in the universe, and produced one of the first maps of the world. empedocles was among the first to believe that the world consisted of diverse material elements acted upon by forces of attraction and repulsion. the atomic theory of matter begins with the greeks. euclid remains one of the most influential mathematicians of all time. his contemporary archimedes was a famous inventor and is also credited with discovering a geometrical technique which anticipated calculus and the fact that the surface and volume of a sphere is 2/3 that of its circumscribing cylinder. through early astronomy, the greeks developed the idea of mathematized science. in the field of medicine, they began with case histories and folk remedies, and ended up with an understanding of the nerves, the ability to patch up wounded gladiators, and even the ability to remove cataracts with eye surgery. they invented the first steam engine, vending machine, automatic doors, and more. and they sustained glorious cities with over a million inhabitants without using electricity, fossil fuels, gunpowder or nuclear fission as sources of energy. in articulating ‗a brief history of science‘, the open university, scotland submitted that: the first people to try and develop the theory behind their observations were the greeks: people such as pythagoras, who concentrated on a mathematical view of the world. similarly, aristotle and plato developed logical methods for examining the world around them. it was the greeks who first suggested that matter was made up of atoms fundamental particles that could not be broken down further. 7. conclusion: philosophy as the mother and science of sciences the exposition so far has shown how philosophy birthed science. thus it should not just a mere claim when people hear the expression, ‗philosophy is the mother of all sciences‘. philosophy indeed is! not only did philosophy lay the foundation for the existence of science, it nurtured science to some level of maturity before its various disciplines sprouted independently. nevertheless, it is to be noted that even at independence, development and advancement, disciplines of science have not actually departed from the basic philosophic nature of inquiry into reality. in other words, studies of science are remotely studies of philosophy. the area of sciences‘ departure from philosophy is the method of science. while philosophy maintains its central character of criticality together with sometimes being speculative, science thrives on empirical explorations. nweke on the philosophic foundation of … philosophy is also reckoned as science of sciences in its role of keeping the reins of sciences in continuous rational check. philosophy understudies every field of science and with its critical essence and other methods, understands the possibility of those fields operating outside their essences and expectations. in other words: philosophy may be called the "science of sciences" probably in the sense that it is, in effect, the self-awareness of the sciences and the source from which all the sciences draw their world-view and methodological principles, which in the course of centuries have been honed down into concise forms. (spirkin) thus, there is philosophy of virtually every other discipline with the task of questioning their fundamental assumptions and in its normative or prescriptive nature, multiplies options for those other disciplines. so in the academic field of philosophy, one sees areas like philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of medicine, etc. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 references adhikari, s. 2019. what did plato contribute to science? https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/people/top-contributions-plato/. accessed, october 16, 2020 amadio, a. h. & kenny, a. j. p. 2020. ―aristotle‖. encyclopædia britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/aristotle accessed october 16, 2020 american association for advancement of science. ―history and philosophy of science‖. https://www.aaas.org/programs/dialogue-science-ethics-and-religion/history philosophy-science. accessed, october 17, 2020 department of classics, university of pittsburg, ancient philosophy and science. https://www.classics.pitt.edu/research/ancient-philosophy-and-science. accessed, october 17, 2020 freer, a. a history of science – from the era of great light to the beginning of the dark age – a barren period for science. https://www.unimedliving.com/science/the lineage-of-science/who-stole-god-from-science-part-2.html. accessed, october 15, 2020 joyce, s. 2018. answered december 18, 2018how does philosophy relate to science? https://www.quora.com/what-is-the-relationship-between-science-and-philosophy. accessed, october 16, 2020 lo presti, r. history of science: the first scientist. nature512, 250–251 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/512250a. accessed, october 15, 2020 spirkin, a. philosophy and science. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/spirkin/works/dialectical materialism/ch01-s04.html accessed, october 17, 2020 the open university, scotland. brief history of science. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-science technology-and-medicine/history-science/brief-history-science. accessed, october 16, 2020 williams, l. p. 2018. history of science. encyclopædia britannica https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-science.accessed, october 17, 2020 https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/people/top-contributions-plato/ https://www.britannica.com/contributor/anselm-h-amadio/60 https://www.britannica.com/contributor/anthony-jp-kenny/6155 https://www.britannica.com/biography/aristotle https://www.aaas.org/programs/dialogue-science-ethics-and-religion/history-philosophy-science https://www.aaas.org/programs/dialogue-science-ethics-and-religion/history-philosophy-science https://www.classics.pitt.edu/research/ancient-philosophy-and-science https://www.unimedliving.com/science/the-%09lineage-of-science/who-stole-god-from-science-part-2.html https://www.unimedliving.com/science/the-%09lineage-of-science/who-stole-god-from-science-part-2.html https://www.quora.com/profile/steve-joyce-1 https://www.quora.com/how-does-philosophy-relate-to-science-1?no_redirect=1 https://www.quora.com/what-is-the-relationship-between-science-and-philosophy https://doi.org/10.1038/512250a https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/spirkin/works/dialectical%20%09materialism/ch01-%09s04.html https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/spirkin/works/dialectical%20%09materialism/ch01-%09s04.html https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-science-%09technology-and-%09medicine/history-science/brief-history-science https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-science-%09technology-and-%09medicine/history-science/brief-history-science https://www.britannica.com/contributor/l-pearce-williams/3215 https://www.britannica.com/science/history-of-science nweke on the philosophic foundation of … williams, m. 2015. who was democritus? https://www.universetoday.com/60058/democritus atom/#:~:text=one%20such%20person%20is%20democritus,resemblance%20to %20mo dern%20atomic%20theory. accessed, october 16, 2020 https://www.universetoday.com/60058/democritus-%09atom/#%3a~%3atext%3done%20such%20person%20is%20democritus%2cresemblance%20to%20%20mo%20dern%20atomic%20theory https://www.universetoday.com/60058/democritus-%09atom/#%3a~%3atext%3done%20such%20person%20is%20democritus%2cresemblance%20to%20%20mo%20dern%20atomic%20theory https://www.universetoday.com/60058/democritus-%09atom/#%3a~%3atext%3done%20such%20person%20is%20democritus%2cresemblance%20to%20%20mo%20dern%20atomic%20theory philosophy, the church and quest for socio-economic liberation in nigeria barnabas obiora idoko abstract nigeria as a nation is plagued by a lot of socioeconomic challenges, including poverty, unemployment, ethnicity, youth restiveness, terrorism, secessionist agitations, electoral fraud, political injustice, sectionalism, insecurity and militancy. many scholars have invested great amount of energy attempting to work out how these problems can be resolved. this study is one of these attempts; it used philosophy as a midwife for the church to realize her potentials as an institution. particularly, the study adopts the historical method of documentary analysis to investigate the possible roles the church/christianity in nigeria can play to achieve socioeconomic liberation for the country. this was based on the philosophical assumption that the church has a radical potency and capacity for confronting and transforming unjust social order. to this end, the paper discovered that at the center of nigeria‘s socioeconomic problem is the failure of leadership and as such any effort to liberate the country from its present condition must be political in nature. however, maintaining the ecclesiastical paradigm that the church as a body should not get herself involved in partisan political activism, the paper outlined some possible functions by which the church in nigeria can contribute immensely towards the desired liberation. these included prophetic denunciation of the oppressive mechanism; promoting programs of raising social consciousness among the masses; practical alleviation of the conditions of the oppressed masses; peace building through positive reconciliation of the oppressed and oppressive members; and personal conversion of the ordinary man. the paper concluded that a combination of the task of spiritual and social liberation enhances the church, more than any other institution, to influence the socioeconomic life of the nigerians. keywords: philosophy, church, socio-economic liberation. 1. introduction social and political scholars often debate on whether or not the church should involve herself or play any role in the socioeconomic affairs of the society. in this evolving controversy, there are some philosophical and religious thinkers who argue that such involvement would jeopardize the church‘s spiritual status as the universal sacrament of salvation. those in this category also believe that such involvement will endanger the well being of the society considering that modern societies are generally multi religious. an intervention by the church, the argument goes, might elicit a reciprocal reaction from other religious groups, islam for example and lead to conflagration of society. a. gill on this ground claims that the church in particular and religion in general are increasingly irrelevant in modern social life (a. gill, 2001, 117-138). also, the subsisting 1999 nigerian constitution (section, 10) and indeed all the previous nigerian constitutions have consistently provided that, the government of the federation of nigeria shall not adopt any religion as state religion. hence, the generally held notion of secularism of the nigerian state essentially derives from this constitutional provision. in any case, it has to be noted that the secularization worldview is not a nigerian peculiarity. it is a phenomenon that started in western europe and north america but has currently spread to most countries across the world. nevertheless, there are other scholars who have shown that the refusal to confront societal socioeconomic injustice calls into question the church‘s self-understanding as the light and salt of the earth (callaway 2011, 1). these argue that the church has something positive and substantial to contribute to the quest for socioeconomic societal liberation. to this end, dillon, m. (2003) argues that the ―church illuminates the everyday experiences and practices of many individuals; is a significant component of diverse institutional processes, including politics…and plays a vital role in public culture and social change.‖ in the same token, levy, g., &razin, r. (2012) maintains that the significance of the church and religion to social liberation cannot be dispensed with. it will seem more appropriate to take a re-conciliatory or midway position that while she is not expected to become a political organization, the church has a substantial role to play in socioeconomic liberation by acting as a principled guide, moral watch dog, spiritual counselor and conscience to the society. the aim of this paper, therefore, is to establish philosophically that implicit in the sacred and sacramental mission of the church is her social ministry as an instrument of justice in an unjust socioeconomic system, an instrument of reconciliation and peace in a conflict and crisisridden society, as well as an instrument of freedom in an oppressive structure. this position is practically at variance with karl max perception of the church. the paper argues that participation in the process of socioeconomic liberation for the realization of justice is a task, even a sine qua non‘ for the church as both a religious and viable social institution. the decision to pursue socioeconomic liberation of nigeria in this research is informed by the level of socioeconomic injustice currently prevalent in nigeria. as pointed out at the abstract, the overwhelming upsurge of secessionists‘ groups in nigeria these days such as ipob (indigenous people of biafra), people of oduduwa, the boko haram and banditry insurgency in the north, end sars protesters and other similar movements are commonly interpreted as demonstrations against the state resulting from the strains of injustice in the system and as signaling the level of discontent among the citizenry especially the young people. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 the historical method of documentary analysis adopted in the paper involves the consultation of existing documents to validate the claims made in the work. the discussion is divided into three broad sections. the first section attempts a clarification of the key concept, ‗philosophy ‗and ‗church‘ as the paper uses it. the second section discusses nigeria‘s unjust socioeconomic system and the reality of the need for liberation. the third and final section deals with the liberating role of the church in achieving the desired justice in the socioeconomic life of nigeria. it is maintained in the paper that the church‘s socioeconomic engagement in the pursuit of justice should not be construed to mean that as a body it should be expected to leave the ministry of the word of god to serve tables by getting herself involved in a violent revolutionary overthrowing of governments or even in partisan political activism. the liberating role of the church should be such that will enhance her influence on the socio-political and economic order without jeopardizing her spiritual and evangelistic vision and mission. some possible functions are outlined by which the church in nigeria can contribute immensely towards the requisite liberation that would create the desired atmosphere of justice. 2. conceptual elucidation of philosophy and the church historically, philosophy is understood as the fundamental of all disciplines: the basic human inquiry which has yielded the multiplicity of all disciplines that take care of virtually all aspects of human life. it is an inquiry which is the mother of all inquiries and from which all other modes of inquiries originated. philosophy is also an attitude to life. this is closely linked with the etymological meaning which portrays philosophy as a conscious quest for knowledge. philosophy in this regard is that critical attitude to life which is characterized by curiosity to know, openness of the mind to all issues, lack of dogmatic assertions or stand, tolerance and preparedness to examine everything without prejudice. it is from this perspective that philosophy is used in this research to serve the purpose of socioeconomic liberation of nigeria through the church. scholars usually conceptualize the church in two senses: the institutional and organismic senses. in one sense, the church is used as an institution while in another sense it is used as an organism. the church as an institution is defined by van reken as the ―formal organization that sets out to accomplish a specific purpose‖ (1999, 198). according to him: it is an agent which can do things; and can say things because it has its own voice. the church as an institution has its own purposes and plans, its own structure and officers, and its own mission. it has its own proper sphere. in many ways it parallels other institutions, like governments or schools. it is from this perspective that c. n. ogugua (2019, 31) understands the term, church to mean an organized people of god, a spiritual and moral force to be reckoned with. on the other hand, the church as an organism refers to ―the church as the body of believers, the communion of believers‖ (van reken 1999, 198). the distinction between the two concepts of the church is that while the institutional church refers to a unified organization, the church as an organism refers to an aggregate of individual believers in which each christian acts as a personal agent with a purpose and a call in god‘s plan. based on this distinction, van reken goes further to distinguish between ―church work‖ and ―kingdom work‖. church work, according to him, is the work that a christian does as an agent of the institutional church, while kingdom work is the work that a christian does in service of his lord not as an agent of the institutional church but in his/her secular vocation or calling, whether as a plumber, a teacher, or a politician (van reken 1999, 198). this twofold meaning of church reverberates in jim harris‘ view when he says: ―by ‗church‘ i mean both the individual believer and the institutional entity‖ (harris http://thebigpicture.homestead.com/ churchinpolitics.html). it therefore means that in discussing the role of the church in the pursuit of justice in the socioeconomic system of a given country, we are invariably dealing with the part that both individuals and the corporate body have to play in the society. 3. socioeconomic/political injustice in nigeria: an evolutionary approach nigeria became independent from great britain in october 1960. however, by january 1966, the civilian government was brutally ousted by the nation‘s military. central to the arguments of the soldiers, for toppling the government in power was the question of corruption, in which the adherents of each of the two major religious persuasions in the country were self-evident participants. in addition to leadership sleaze, there was inter tribal hatred in the national polity. hence, the first military coup of january 1966 in the country and the counter coup in july of the same year, featured on massive scales, alleged and proven cases of tribal induced murder of the nation‘s leaders. profoundly found in the country at this time were deep-seated ethnic antagonisms, not religious bigotry. a civil war ensued (the nigeria-biafra war) fought between july 1967 and january 1970. at the end of the warfare, the military remained in power, with intermittent pretenses of handing over the affairs of the state to civilians, whom they would subsequently bring down. s. i. ebohon, and n. o. obakhedo, (2012) argue that despite the heterogeneous nature of the nigerian state and its concomitant defects, the nation at independence, was seen as a beacon of hope to many other nation-states in the continent. that is to say that no matter the circumstances, nigeria held the prospects of a strong developmental state that would be a rallying point to other states. the reason for this huge confidence was that nigeria was perceived as a regional economic hub and political force and an african regional super-power. the military mishap in the politics of the country however unfortunately accelerated the pace of bringing the emergent state to http://thebigpicture.homestead.com/ aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 its developmental nadir. the military in the country continued to stage counter coups against subsisting military governments in the nigerian state. hence, leadership instability (as driven by the soldiers) remained a permanent feature of governance in nigeria, from october 1960 to may 1999, when the men of the armed forces seemed to have finally surrendered power to civilian politicians. however, in all of the foregoing, another enduring feature of national affairs in the country is what seems to border on elite determination to guarantee that the nigerian nation fails to survive as a nationally prosperous entity, for the good of all her citizens. consequently, either in military fatigues or civilian garbs, the power elite in nigeria possesses a seemingly irrepressible tendency to gravitate towards the thieving of national resources. citing ihonvbere c. c. ojukwu & j. o. shopeju (2010) contend that the country‘s picture and identity is replete with confused, factionalized and extremely corrupt elites, with a limited sense of nationhood. these elites, ojukwu &shopeju argue, lacking strong and viable base in production, turns the state as its primary instrument of primitive accumulation and in the end, the state is mangled and rendered impotent, in the quest for nationhood, growth and development, much less democracy. hence, according to t. soniyi (2012), it was estimated that $400 billion of nigeria‘s oil revenue had been stolen or misspent since the country‘s independence in 1960. the estimation was attributed to a nigerian-born former world bank vice-president for africa, dr. oby ezekwesili. in that same year (2012), almost 100 million nigerians were living on less than $1 (£0.63) a day (bbc news (2012). world population review (world population review, 2015), highlights that nigeria‘s current population is in the region of 194.0 million people out of which almost 100 million were living on less than $1 (£0.63) a day. furthermore, according to l. nwabughiogu (2015), nigeria‘s vice president, yemi osinbajo, had disclosed that about 110 million nigerians were still living below poverty line in the country, despite the policies of past governments to improve their welfare. it is however held in this study that elite grandstanding had fully tainted such policies of government, thereby making them largely ineffectual, as such policies were not truly designed with the needy citizens in mind. in the face of these apparent distresses, b. ademola-olateju (2013) then ponders: why are nigerians content at setting new unbecoming standards every day? bad roads? take it to the lord in prayer! comatose healthcare system? bad diseases will not be our portion in jesus name! collapsed educational system? what will be will be, our children are overcomers! epileptic power supply? may the good lord bind all the principalities, demonic spirits and the powers of darkness preventing nigeria from enjoying stable electricity supply! in consequence, nigerians sit on their hands, praying for celestial edicts to be beamed down to them from god‘s majestic throne. nigeria‘s contemporary narrative therefore borders on hopes betrayed by the elite and new expectations solely hoisted on the benefaction of the almighty by the citizenry. it is also a history of evident elite-arrest of a national system what ebohon&obakhedo (2012) have similarly depicted as elite constructivism. in addition, embodied in these configurations, is a critical case of apparent acquiescence to such state capture, by the subaltern class of the nigerian polity. 4. the church and the socio-economic liberation of the nigerian society as already noted at the introductory part of this work, participation in the process of socioeconomic liberation for the realization of justice is a task, even a ‗sine qua non‘ for the church both as a religious and viable social institution. christians are to take positive actions to destroy all forms of oppression and injustice wherever they are found (hastings 1976, 91). nevertheless, this does not mean, that the church as a body should be expected to leave the word of god to serve tables by getting herself involved in a violent revolutionary overthrowing of governments or even in partisan political activism. the liberating role of the church should be such that will enhance her influence on the socioeconomic order without jeopardizing her spiritual and evangelistic vision and mission. this will involve her confronting and challenging every unjust, oppressive and exploitative structure with christian values and ideals. this implies a prophetic and priestly role for the church in nigeria, just like amos, isaiah, jeremiah, micah and other prophets in the bible. in this role, the church can, along with her direct spiritual vocation, be committed to the process of justice, human liberation and social transformation by fulfilling the following five functions: prophetic denunciation of the oppressive mechanism; promoting programs of raising social consciousness among the masses; practical alleviation of the conditions of the oppressed masses; peace building through positive reconciliation of the oppressed and oppressive members; and personal conversion of the ordinary man. we shall now examine these points in some details. 4.1 prophetic denunciation of the oppressive mechanism the church‘s prophetic stance obligates her to confront and challenge the systems of corruption and injustice which oppress, exploit and deprive the masses by criticizing and judging them by the gospel standards. the church in nigeria, in the words of archbishop cyril garbett, is to ―fight the world by bearing against it militant and prophetic witness … shown in open attacks on the sins of the world … and expose the falseness of the values accepted by the world …‖ (ryan 1987,159-160). by means of official statements from ecumenical bodies like can, ecclesiastical councils, critical and corrective sermons, and so on, such unjust systems can be decried, denounced and called to order. such prophetic aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 calls can function to disturb the comfort and untouched conscience of the affluent in the society whose power and wealth are accumulated at the expense and to the detriment of the impoverished peasants. as the proclaimer and interpreter of the divine purpose and will for the nation, the church can act as a moral check on the activities of the ruling class, rejecting, resisting and denouncing ungodly and unpopular policies which prevent the full realization of justice and equity in the society. she can provide an ―alternative voice‖ through the establishment of a more reliable, intrepid and independent media for the dissemination of her prophetic messages to the nation. as a prophet the church can function as the conscience of the nation, the voice of the voiceless, a critic of unjust institution and an iconoclast in the oppressive tradition. as s. i. omoera points out, the church is ―to be aggressive … in condemning sin‖ in demanding for justice, and in fighting ―the battle of the poor, the hungry …‖ against a system that ―too often turns deaf ear to their appeals‖ (hastings 1987, 93). 4.2 promoting programs of raising social consciousness among the masses in line with francis bacon‘s sagacious assertion that knowledge is power, this is a social educational program aimed at creating socio-political awareness among the people for an eventual peaceful elimination of the structures of oppression. it is a gradual but effective approach to structural change through a re-orientation of the group and individual‘s consciousness. the sensitization of the masses involves, among other things, the provocation, stimulation, creation and building up of ―a new awareness in them‖ to give them ―a new consciousness‖ which encourages them ―to see the possibility‖ and ―accept responsibility for their own development.‖ it also involves the mobilization of the masses ―to join hands together for positive action towards change‖ (omoera, 1987, 125). the goal of this mental liberation is to emancipate the nigerian minds from such ―fatalistic world view‖ which makes them to resign themselves to the culture of poverty and hopelessness. it enables them to be able to see their ―capacity to create a better society for themselves‖ (adegbola 1987, 69 70). this is the attitudinal aspect of liberation philosophy in which the marginalized, oppressed and down-trodden masses are able to face the future with meaningful and reasonable optimism. this is done by helping them to see themselves in the light of the biblical evaluation of themselves. such function disabuses and emancipates their minds from the belief that god has destined their lot to be so. this attitudinal aspect of liberation philosophy also involves the sensitization of the upper and middle class elite members of the church to the real nature and extent of the plight of the oppressed, thereby soliciting their change of attitude, sympathy and commitment to the cause of the oppressed. it may be that some of them do not actually realize the full implications and effects of their activities on the masses. they may likely change for better and help to change their colleagues when their consciences are awakened. 4.3 practical alleviation of the conditions of the oppressed masses the church‘s liberation work as the champion of the cause of the poor, weak and oppressed masses does not end with attacking the perpetrators of injustice and oppression ―afflicting the comfortable‖, but also includes the alleviation of the miserable and painful condition of the victims of the system ―comforting the afflicted‖. this will necessitate practical concern with economic programs for the improvement of their conditions, since the callous bureaucratic system would only frustrate the hopes of the helpless masses for such projects if left in their hands. this goes beyond mere charity works for the provision of subsistence needs. the churches can embark on practical socioeconomic projects such as we see in some latin american countries. this can include building of hospitals, establishing co-operative bodies for joint venture, scholarship funds for students from poor families, educational programs for those who are disadvantaged by the government‘s educational system, organizing training programmes in business and technological skills. although some of these projects have been undertaken by some churches already, their lack of liberating tendencies is obvious when we try to answer the question, which category of people benefit from them, the poor or the rich members of these churches? in addition to this, the church must also seek for ways of influencing public policies to favor the improvement of the poor and powerless masses, since she is their last hope and place of refuge. 4.4 peace building through positive reconciliation of the oppressed and oppressing members the priestly role of reconciliation is another major social function of the church in the process of socio-political and economic liberation. unlike the marxist approach to justice, which implies the elimination of the oppressive rich for the liberation of the oppressed poor, the christian approach to justice seeks to create a community of reconciled people, the rich and the poor, the oppressor and the oppressed. it is ―a peace-creating justice which binds together in a new transformed community‖ (hellwig 1974, 169). the church‘s liberation ministry is, therefore, a ministry of positive reconciliation of both parties and not that of violent revolution. the church is to show concern both for the deplorable conditions of the victims of injustice and oppression and also for the ultimate judgment on the vices of the oppressors. thus, its prophetic indictments of the oppressive status quo should not be mere arbitrary, malicious and vindictive criticisms of the system, but rather constructive and corrective criticisms which ultimately aim at the eventual liberation of both the oppressors from their vices and the oppressed from their victimization, thereby reconciling them. this fact is aptly captured in the statement cited by uchegbue that ―god does not seek the destruction of members of the ruling classes who are willing to change their ways … in order to create a new system…‖ (uchegbue 1985, 99). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 4.5 personal conversion of the ordinary man the church‘s liberating mission in nigeria goes beyond commitment to mere philanthropic activism or welfarism, protesting against social injustices and motivating and mobilizing people for active participation in social transformation. religion essentially sets a transcendental goal by helping us to realize that life is more than the satisfaction of immediate material needs of hunger and poverty (luke 12:15; matthew 6:25). as douglas webster cited in norman autton rightly pointed out, the human tragedy is sin and not hunger while the worst privation is ignorance of god rather than social inequality. therefore, though poverty, exploitation, oppression, and so on seems to be the prevailing problems of our day which provide the church with ―the context for mission‖, the ―contents‖ of her mission are not determined by them. in the final analysis, the church‘s mission is ultimately and supremely concerned with god (autton 1972: 226 227). according to him, though ―man does need bread‖, he needs god above all (autton 1972: 227). thus while the church seeks for socio-political and economic liberation to provide a more just system in nigeria, it must relentlessly and without distraction seek for the spiritual liberation of the people – a change in the personal man himself. if social changes are to bear lasting fruits, a deep-seated conversion and fundamental spiritual transformation of the individual members of society – the oppressed, the oppressors and the liberators are of indispensable necessity. the reason is that the ordinary, normal, usual or average man is inherently corrupt. history has proved that the revolutionary of today may become the reactionary of tomorrow and the progressive of today may become the conservative of tomorrow unless they are inwardly transformed themselves. how can one under the iron shackles of evil and wickedness change an evil and wicked system? this reflects the picture of the hypocritical liberators presented by the apostle peter in his second epistle where he writes, ―while they promise them liberty, they themselves are the servants of corruption: for of whom a man is overcome, of the same is he brought in bondage‖ (2 peter 2:19 kjv). 5. conclusion this study has used critical analysis to demonstrate that nigeria, like many countries of the world today, especially, countries in africa is in great need of socioeconomic liberation. it is also very obvious that the church as a sacred institution with indispensable social significance and relevance can and should contribute significantly towards the realization of this noble responsibility. what is needed, for the church to enhance her effectiveness in fulfilling this aspect of her mission therefore, is a balanced form of theological and philosophical orientation which is both spiritually oriented and socioeconomically relevant. this will produce a kind of church ―that calls the world evil and steps into the world, looks at its evil forms full in the face, and does something to change it‖ (verkuyl and schulte 1974, 69). it is in this light that edmund ilogu rightly comments that ―there is no hope for calling any organization a church that has not manifested the marks of christ‘s fight against evil in the world‖ (ilogu 1964, 275). such a church that must be able to fulfill this task must be a dynamic and progressive church rather than a static and conservative church that arbitrarily supports the status quo. as iwe equally points out, ―only a creative church with a high sense of ministry and commitment can effect significant contributions to the life of its people‖ and adequately, legitimately and competently work for the welfare of society …‖ (iwe 1979, 161). in sum therefore, a combination of the task of spiritual and social liberation enhances the church, more than any other institution, to influence the socioeconomic life of the nigerian society positively. it is no exaggeration to maintain that an inspired, honest, faithful, dedicated, converted and courageous church, through its clergy and laity, remains a powerful agent for social change and liberation of the citizens of a callous, corrupt, inept and exploitative society like nigeria. in other words, the church in nigeria has the mandate, message and method which can contribute greatly in the attempts to solve the socioeconomic problems of the country. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 references adegbola, adeolu e.a. (1987). ―the church of the middle-class elite‖ in s.a. adewale. ed. christianity and socio-political order in nigeria. ibadan: the nigerian association for christian studies, 47-85. ademola-olateju, b. (2013). ―nigeria and we, its 170million stupid people‖. http://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/147023-bamidele-upfront nigeria170million-stupid-people-bamidele-ademola-olateju.html. autton, norman. (1972), ―christianity and change‖ the expository time. vol. lxxxiii, no.8. may. bbcnews (2012). nigerians living in poverty rise to nearly 61%.http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-17015873. callaway, mary. (2011) ―the role of the church in politics‖ online: http://www.helium. com/items/calvin/the_churches_role_in_ social_ justice.pdf. .created on: february 24,. accessed 10/31/2020. dillon, m. (2003). ―blurb‖, in dillon, m. (ed.) handbook of the sociology of religion. cambridge: cambridge university press. ebohon, s. i and obakhedo, n.o. (2012): ‗‗the elite and the failing nigerian state‖. nigerian journal of social sciences, 8(1): 10-32. gill, a. (2001). religion and comparative politics. annual review of political science, 4(1), 117-138. hastings, adrian. (1976) african christianity. london: geoffrey chapman. hellwig, monika. (1974). ―the theology of christian hope.‖ chicago studies.vol. 13, no. 2. summer, 169-175 levy, g., &razin, r. (2012). religious beliefs, religious participation, and cooperation. american economic journal: microeconomics, 4(3), 121-151 nwabughiogu, l. (2015). over 100m nigerians living below poverty line – osinbajo.http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/08/over-1-million-nigeriansliving belowpoverty-line-osinbajo/ ogugua c. n. (2019), ―diagnosing the problem of africa and the way out‖ journal of igbo academics ojukwu, c. c., &shopeju, j. o. (2010). elite corruption and the culture of primitive accumulation in 21st century nigeria. international journal of peace and development studies, 1(2), 15-24. omoera, s.i. (1987). ―church and state relations in a new nigerian political order‖ in s.a. adewale. ed.christianity and socio-political order in nigeria. ibadan: the nigerian association for christstudies, 121 – 139. ryan, charles p. (1978) ―a liberation theology for nigeria‖ in s.a. adewale. ed. christianity and sociopolitical order in nigeria. ibadan: the nigerian association for christian studies, 140 –161. http://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/147023-bamidele-upfront-nigeria170million-stupid-people-bamidele-ademola-olateju.html http://www.premiumtimesng.com/opinion/147023-bamidele-upfront-nigeria170million-stupid-people-bamidele-ademola-olateju.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-17015873 http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/08/over-1-million-nigerianshttp://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/08/over-1-million-nigerianssoniyi, t. (2012). $400bn of oil revenue stolen, says ezekwesili. http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/-400bn-of-oil-revenue stolensaysezekwesili/123472/ uchegbue, christian o. (1985) ―biblical prophecy and its relevance to the contemporary nigerian situation‖. unpublished b. a. project. university of calabar. verkuyl, johannes and h.g. nordholt schulte. (1974) responsible revolution: means and ends for transforming society. grand rapids: william b. eerdmans publishing company. http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/-400bn-of-oil-revenue%20stolensaysezekwesili/123472/ http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/-400bn-of-oil-revenue%20stolensaysezekwesili/123472/ aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 abstract environmental degradation is considered by many to be one of the major challenges facing humanity in modern times. the environment is being severely and seriously undermined by human activities. industrialization and its products irretrievably affect the land surface, the seas, and the atmosphere of our planetary environment. these undesirable effects on the environment imprint ugliness on the world and limit people's opportunities for pleasurable environmental aesthetic experiences. as one of the branches of aesthetics, environmental aesthetics determines the factors that shape our understanding and the creation of the natural and built environment. it examines among other things appreciation of nature as a powerful foundation for positive and affirmative action on environmental issues. through the framework of the cognitive account of the aesthetic appreciation of nature in contemporary environmental aesthetics which maintains that aesthetic education concerning nature should incorporate the contributions made by scientists and naturalists so that our attitude towards nature will develop with ecological sensitivity. this is predicated on the ceteris paribus condition that a good aesthetic education and right aesthetic attitude is instrumental in the preservation and protection of our natural and human-made environments in nigeria. it bemoans the negative consequences and effects of environmental degradation and discusses the positive effects that might follow from taking natural beauty seriously. keywords: environmental aesthetics, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic cognitivism, aesthetics attitude, environmental degradation. introduction the city of port harcourt, the capital of rivers state, nigeria, popularly known as the garden city because of its green and open spaces with nicely patterned houses built in well-planned layouts has now been described as a dirty and dark city because it has been engulfed in recent time with dark, hazy and hazardous soot, coupled with dirty environment caused by lack of proper attitude towards disposal of solid waste. in recent time, this hydra-headed monster called black soot has become the major concern of all, as residents of the state have publicly decried the dangers of such environmental degradation that is likely to cut short the life expectancy of the people in the city. concern citizens have taken to the social media to raise alarm about the possible danger of this problem. canon, a concern resident and an environmentalist describe this worrisome 30 the significance of aesthetic education on environmental degradation in nigeria amadi, cornelius chukwudi, ph.d department of philosophy rivers state university, port harcourt, nigeria & veraba, david dinebari, ph.d department of philosophy rivers state university, port harcourt, nigeria situation in this day thus: you're wiping your face with a handkerchief and everything is black. you're trying to clean your car and everything is black. or you look at the soles of th your feet and it is just pitch black. (january, 20 , 2022). his words summarized the severity and magnitude of the threat that the situation poses to public health and livelihood for men and animals, like every other air pollutant. experts maintain that the cause of the soot has been attributed to numerous factors. some residents and activists attribute it to the flaring of petroleum products and burning of tires and illegal refineries that are operational in the city. others believes that the illegal oil activities undertaken by bunkers and vandals are chiefly responsible for the dilemma the city is faced with. some other concerned citizens are of the opinion that the soot is as a result of abattoirs burning tyres, heating of asphalt and also the burning of stolen petroleum products by security agencies. the blame trade has left no one in exception. some blamed kpo-fires — illegal refineries in rivers state and much of the oil-rich niger delta. others have blamed everything else under the sun. it is no longer a joke and like the slogan of one of the giant telecom communication in the country, mtn, the soot is visible 'everywhere you'. if you take a clean tissue and clean your nostrils, you would see the blackness that has mixed with the natural mucor. beside the air pollution caused majorly by the recent black soot, port harcourt city which as described above used to be a city adorned with fine gardens has become a dirty city; a city as would be described by environmental aestheticians as a city coloured everyday with ugliness and unpleasant smiles. the streets of the city are littered with solid waste. the residents of the city dump their waste right in between the middle of the road, causing them to be flushed into the drainages thereby blocking the water ways. some of the waste are scattered along the roadside by moving cars littering the surrounding which will eventually be flushed into the drainages. one of the major consequences of this ugly incident is that the residents suffer the problem of flash flood during the raining season because solid waste products are being flushed into the drainages causing untold suffering to the inhabitants of the city as they are forced out of their home by flood. in recent time, the rivers state waste management agency (riwama) has totally lost control of managing the waste disposal in the state as the city has being submerged with waste for days, weeks and even months (this day, may 18, 2022). there is general lack of proper attitude towards disposal of solid waste and lack of government's political will according to about this problem has contributed to the city being described as a breeding site for diseases and air pollution ( in fact there is this lack of proper environmental concern by the residents due to lack of proper environmental and aesthetic education. apart from the fact that the city has lost it aesthetic glory, it has equally become a pitiful cynosure of environmental pollution and general environmental degradation. this worrisome situation is not peculiar to rivers state alone, as nigeria, especially the black soot is associated with series of diseases like asthma, bronchitis, coronary heart disease and some other respiratory illnesses. the toxicity of the black soot sometimes causes cancer which may lead to premature death (ukpere & igwe 67). homes are no longer safe because the soot filters in through unlocked doors and opened surfaces. ayotamuno and akuro ayotamuno and akuro 389). 31 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june niger delta states of the federation are equally battling with the issue of air pollution and environmental degradation in general as a result of the activities of the multi-nationals due to the exploration of crude oil. in the niger delta region of the country, the effects of environmental degradations are visible in all nooks and crannies of the regions. these ugly situation ranges from oil spillage, gas flaring, deforestation, destruction of wide and aquatic lives and air pollution to mention but a few. the social and economic impacts of oil industries in these regions has brought great frustration and anger to their lives as it has brought great conflict between the government, the host communities and multi-nationals (nwangbu xiii). the major effect of this problem is environmental degradation and other environmental hazards which have led to the change in the ecosystem (amadi, “ the general orientation about the problem of black soot, lack of proper disposal of waste and general environmental degradation in the garden city, the niger delta and the country as a whole, is that it imprints ugliness in the city and the consequences of man's abuse and misuse of scientific and technological feat”, 89) in times such as ours, when suffering and trauma abound, when violence and violation continue (their scale and reach enabled by modern technologies), when species are increasingly becoming extinct, and when ecosystems are collapsing, philosophies are being addressed to engage in conversation and contemplate how we might globally contribute to a world in which our children, species, and environment can live well and thrive. (heesoon bai ). one of the most encouraging signs in the widespread interest in environmental values is the recognition of the importance of the aesthetic. scholars and researchers have tilted towards aesthetic experience and appreciation in the fight against environmental degradation. but the question is: how can aesthetics contribute to the fight against environmental degradation in nigeria? traditionally, aesthetics is mostly focused on art. it is generally concerned with arts and limit people's opportunities for pleasurable environmental aesthetic experiences. the question is: what is the significance of aesthetic education to the problem of environmental degradation? can aesthetics as a branch of philosophy contribute to the recent call for environmental concern? as heesoon bai puts it: other objects that are explicitly designed for human sensory enjoyment. however, aesthetic appreciation is not limited to art; it is frequently directed towards the world at large. this is the world that surrounds humans in their dayto-day existence and thus constitutes the everyday environment. therefore, as one of the many branches and approaches to aesthetics, environemtal aesthetics is concerned with enhancing cordial respect for the environment and for protection of the environment. even though environmental aesthetics is a child of contemporary age, this field of study collaborates with other environmental study aimed at enhancing cordial respect for the environment and for protection of the environment. the aesthetic experience of this world is the subject matter of environmental aesthetics. this area of aesthetics focuses on philosophical questions concerning appreciation of the world at large and, moreover, that world as it is constituted not simply by particular objects but also by environments 32 amadi & veraba the significance of aesthetic education... themselves. therefore, environmental aesthetics extends beyond the narrow confines of the art world and beyond the appreciation of works of art to the aesthetic appreciation of human-influenced and human-constructed as well as natural environments. however, aesthetic appreciation is not limited to art; it is equally directed to our experience to our experience of the world at large: our everyday environment; he environment in which people work, play and live. thus, the scope of aesthetics extends beyond the narrow confines of arts and other aesthetic objects that elicit aesthetic appreciation. according to arnold the importance of the aesthetic dimension of environment becomes increasingly compelling according to yuriko saito “as industrialization and its products irretrievably affect the land surfaces, the seas, and the atmosphere of our planetary environment.” therefore, environmental aesthetics investigates the importance of aesthetic education to environmental concern. this essay argues that as an axiological discipline, the relationship between ethics and aesthetics is cordial. it therefore submits that a good knowledge of this relationship will encourage how we aesthetically appreciate our environments and how we should treat them. it went on to argue that when the right aesthetic interest and attitude is cultivated and the right aesthetic education and knowledge is inculcated, it will curtail the problem of environmental degradation in the world and nigeria in particular. this essay uses the framework of the cognitive and noncognitive account of the aesthetic appreciation of nature in contemporary environmental aesthetics to make a case for environmental aesthetics as a way forward for the problem of environmental concern in nigeria and the world at large. environmental aesthetics and the call for environmental protection aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that is primarily concerned with the way human beings experience and perceives the world through their senses. this philosophical enquiry is geared towards a good understanding of the arts and beauty. traditional aesthetics has from inception being concerned with fine arts. these arts have equally contributed significantly in shaping this field. central to the claims of traditional aesthetics is the fact that art is sufficient and autonomous and that it does not require any justification for its existence. the proponents of this theory is of the opinion that fine arts requires a special mode of attention called disinterested contemplation; and that the art object must be removed from any cultural, social and economic context and that it must be perceived for what it is. these claims are well suited for arts like painting, sculpture, music, theater, dance, and literature. these arts are littered everywhere in our museums, theaters, concert halls, and libraries. these places provide special locations for their appreciation and enjoyment. thus, aesthetics and the arts complement each other. while aesthetic theory guides our appreciation of the arts, the fine arts on the other hand exemplify the precepts of aesthetics. berleant (2003) the scope of aesthetics has widened to embrace “ethical, social, religions, environmental and cultural concern… varied traditions have joined with its historically interdisciplinary character, making aesthetics a focal centre of diverse and multiple interests”. zettl collaborates this assertion with his position that aesthetics has gone beyond traditional philosophical concept to being the understanding and appreciation of beauty and our ability to judge beauty with 33 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june consistency. he further maintains that in media aesthetics “art and life are mutually dependent on each other and essentially interconnected” (zettl 2). in recent time, scholars have expressed interest in the importance of aesthetics to environmental values. as arnold berleant observed, “aesthetic values are a large part of what draws people to environmental activities and issues.” (berleant, what is environmental aesthetics? 1) just as humans are not distinct from nature nor especially favored by nature as some environmental scholars argued, aesthetic values are embedded in natural conditions. our experiences and interactions with the natural world are suffused with aesthetic values, from the greening of the grass to the ever-changing cloud formations in the sky. we find delight and renewal in these simple perceptions. and it is well that we recognize these aesthetic values. however, the challenge is that the recognition of these aesthetic values in the natural environmental requires some special forms of consciousness and education as some persons are dangerously unaffected by these aesthetic values. environment to elicits the right pleasurable experiences. however, when the right experiences and values are not elicited, concerns are raised about the need for the environment to be protected and care for. scholars and environmental activists have raised serious concern about the damage done to the natural environment in recent times. the activities of man have caused serious damage to the environment. environmental crisis which range from air pollution, improper disposal of solid waste, soil pollution and the depletion of the ozone layer are major consequences of man's abuse and misuse of science and technology. the consequences of man's abuse and misuse of scientific and technological feat”, 89) industrialization and its products irretrievably affect the land surface, the seas, and the atmosphere of our planetary environment. the earth cries out for help. this is beautifully demonstrated by galindo galindo et al thus: over the last thirty years or so, the escalated worsening of physical environments has reached an alarmed level that not only gave rise to a political-social outcry on the urge to legislations at identifying and managing public landscape resources …but also raised the public awareness about the value of aesthetic appreciation of one's environment, be it natural or human-constructed. (1) the aesthetic experience of this world constitutes the subject matter of environmental aesthetic. environmental aesthetic focuses on philosophical questions bordering on the appreciation of the world at large, the world as it is constituted not by particular objects but also by environments themselves. therefore, environmental aesthetics extends beyond the narrow confines of the art world and beyond the appreciation of works of art to the aesthetic appreciation of human-influenced and human-constructed as well as natural environments. environmental possesses aesthetic value is the value that an object, event, or state of affairs has. this can be an artwork or natural because of its capacity to elicit either positive or negative value when experienced aesthetically. the environment possesses values and most fundamentally aesthetic values, and this is why it is always our concern and interest for the (amadi, “ 34 amadi & veraba the significance of aesthetic education... this public outcry has led to the call for the protection of the earth for obvious reasons. the rio de janeiro brazil reconcile economic development environment this has even led some scholars to attribute ethical and moral value to the environment, arguing that the environment is a moral person with rights and responsibilities. arnold berleant argues that the reason why we exploit the earth and the natural environment is because we tend to separate and segregate the earth from ourselves. according to him: … we cannot wholly objectify nature. we cannot segregate nature or separate ourselves from environment. we are, flesh and bone, the product of the environment with which we coexist. not only our activities but our thoughts and feelings are profoundly influenced by climate, topography, wind, and water conditions. we are, in other words, inseparable from our environment. (berleant, what is environmental aesthetics? 2) berleant argues that the only remedy for this attitude towards the environment is to see the environment as indistinguishable from us. this is why we should speak of environment rather than "the" environment. according to him, when we talk about "the" environment, we tend to treat it as something independent of us, as a separate place. it is as if we could objectify environment, give it limits-circumscribe it. on the other hand, speaking simply of "environment" according to him recognizes that environment is indeterminate, that its extent varies with the situation. moreover and most importantly, "environment" is not "out there" but includes me as an active part. just like everyone who has concern for the protection of the natural and manmade environment, and just like every other environmental activist whose major duty is to seek for the protection of the environment, it is our assertion that a good aesthetic education and right aesthetic attitude is instrumental in the preservation and protection of our natural and human-made environments in nigeria and the world at large. the need to apply aesthetic theories to the environment arises from the fact that human actions have contributed to the destruction of the environment. humans as an aesthetic being have exploited the environment. we exploit our environment because we think that the environment is separate from us. if the environment is part and parcel of us, there is need to protect it. the significance of aesthetic education on environmental degradation in nigeria the standards of scientific thought and modern technology have come to dominate the lives of individuals. pedagogical models have warned us against trying to pay too much attention to rationalism and emphasizing the development of the affective domain of the young mind. all the critical periods in the history of philosophy have warned about the dominance of reason over the senses. this is why olga denac evidently demonstrates the importance of artistic and aesthetic education thus: at the point when the child's or young united nations conference on environment and development (unced), by name earth summit, conference held at , between june 3-14, 1992), to worldwide with protection of the was a case in point. 35 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june person's development of integrity becomes unbalanced, aesthetic education is seen as the “last resort” in the reestablishment of harmony among the individual areas of the child's personality. (1714-1719). according to him, modern pedagogy teaches that each child should have the opportunity to develop his abilities to observe, experience, evaluate and create that which is beautiful. this can only be achieved if we offer children a healthy living environment and an active artistic and aesthetic education. olga went on to recommend that the educational curriculum should be structured to accommodate the other domain of man's developmental stages to include the aesthetic. this is because according to her: every child needs planned, aesthetic education in order to influence the experiencing, feeling and enjoying of beautiful things as a counterbalance to our currently rationalized world. since the contemporary school strives for the development of professional knowledge and skills on the basis of intellectual actions, while (at the same time) neglecting other dimensions of the child's personality (emotions, feelings, etc.), it is one of the most important tasks of the education of children and young people to develop the ability to enjoy art and beauty, and in one's inner and outer life to act in accordance with a sense of proportion, harmony and beauty. (1714-1719) plato for instance regarded aesthetic education as an indispensable element for the upbringing or training of man in the ideal society even though he was quite antagonistic to mimetic arts. friedrich schiller (1759–1805) equally observed that pedagogical goals could also be achieved through aesthetic education. he thus emphasizes the educational functions of the aesthetic in art which will eventually cultivate in him a genuine sense of humanity. herbart recognizes the danger of rational unilaterality in education of the child. and he is of the opinion that harmony and balance in the child's personal integrity can be maintained through aesthetic culture. thomas read maintains that the fundamental mistake of all educational system lies in their constant focus on rationalism. he insists that the educational curriculum should be expanded to include the aesthetic so as to create a perfect harmony in the life of the individual (gilbert & kuhn, 1967). the recognition of aesthetic qualities and appreciation of aesthetic experiences require the development of our aesthetic consciousness. this is because, even when these natural aesthetic experiences are littered all over us, experience has equally revealed that not all human beings are affected by this experience. some persons are often and always unaffected by the way their environment feels even when the environment is suffused with aesthetic and artistic value. the environmental degradations we feel all around us today is as a result of lack of aesthetic consciousness and wrong aesthetic attitude. the question fundamental at this juncture is: why are we not affected by the way our environment looks? arnold berleant has a ready-made answer to this question: 36 amadi & veraba the significance of aesthetic education... appreciation can be developed. some environmental values are so direct that it takes no more than noticing them to evoke appreciation, although such attention is not automatic and can be enhanced by focusing our attention. it is easy to be environmentally blind and simply unaware of the quality of light or the temperature of the air. we may fail to notice the décor of a room or the color of a person's eyes. having these pointed out can make us aware of environmental values that, of course, are everywhere and always present to a receptive sensibility. (berleant, what is environmental aesthetics 4) to appreciate and experience aesthetic qualities, we have to develop, cultivate and nurture our aesthetic consciousness. this is because it takes only a conscious attitude and a correct disposition for the right aesthetic experience to be felt. the questions that call to mind at this juncture is: how can one develop the right aesthetic attitude towards nature or the natural environment? or to join yuriko saito and ask: is there a correct aesthetic appreciation of nature? scholars argue that just as some appreciations of art are aesthetically more appropriate than others, so there are more or less aesthetically proper interpretations of natural objects. kendall walton lists the following categories as the appropriate features for the appreciation of the work of art. these include: the condition of standard features, the condition of aesthetic pleasure, the condition of the artist's intention, the condition of societal recognition and the condition of generic origin (104105). according to him, works of art are interpreted based on these conditions and categories. while some scholars are of the view that all the conditions outlined above are appropriate for the aesthetic appreciation of natural objects, others claim that some conditions do not always apply to the environment and the natural objects. according to allen carlson, while other categories may apply to natural objects and to the environment, the conditions of the artist's intention and societal recognition are not inappropriate and inapplicable in the aesthetic appreciation of nature. the various traditions or categories for the aesthetic appreciation of nature include: the formalist/picturesque category, historical category, literary category and naturalist category or scientific category. even while all these categories are outlined as the various aesthetic conditions for the appreciation of natural environment, some of these scholars who belong to this school of thought argue that the most appropriate aesthetic appreciation of nature is the one which incorporates our scientific knowledge concerning nature. this school of thought can be generally called aesthetic cognitivism. they claim that scientists and naturalists can best help develop in us an aesthetically appropriate attitude toward nature. saito captures the general orientation of the cognitivist theory thus: to appropriately appreciate [natural] objects or landscapes . . . aesthetically . . . it is necessary to perceive them in their correct categories. this requires knowing what they are and knowing something about them. in general, it requires the 37 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june knowledge given by the natural sciences. (90) cognitive approaches have the assumption that it is central to have information and knowledge about a topic matter or object in order to be able to appreciate it. one cognitive approach to the aesthetic appreciation of natural environments for example stresses natural history, biology and geology as central. knowledge from these scientific disciplines is seen to be central in order to appropriately aesthetically appreciate a natural environment. according to connie svabo and kathrine ekelund, “cognitive approaches cluster around the conviction that information is central for appreciation.” (3) this school of thought argues that aesthetic education concerning nature should incorporate the contributions made by scientists and naturalists so that our attitude toward nature will develop with ecological sensitivity (saito 35). scholars who belong to this school of thought predicated their argument on the ground that philosophical aesthetics suggest that the aesthetic appreciation of a work of art necessarily involves various cognitive considerations regarding its origin, art history, artistic medium, and some-times the artist's intention, as well as discriminating sensibilities. without these considerations, it will be improper to determine the proper aesthetic category to experience the artistic objects and without demarcating the proper categories, our aesthetic appreciation of the work of art will be inappropriate, either because it misses some of the work's aesthetically significant aspects or because it attributes to the work an improper expressive quality (saito 36). this can also be a valid argument for our aesthetic appreciation of our environment and natural objects. knowledge of the sciences enriches our understanding of aesthetic experience. carlson argues that the reason why other categories like the historical, literary or the formal categories are inappropriate for the aesthetic appreciation is because of “its ecologically and environmentally undesirable consequences: it is not effective in justifying the preservation of nature, a pressing issue especially today when the destruction and abuse of nature are causing serious environmental problems.” (saito 41) carlson argues that if we are to save the environment from possible destruction, then a formalist appreciation of nature should be avoided because the destruction of nature cannot be seen as an aesthetic loss from a formalist perspective. considered from a formalist perspective, “a playground, a strip-mined landscape, or a factory, considered merely as colors, lines, and shapes, do not necessarily destroy the scenic beauty of the environment; moreover, at least in some cases they each can be shown to improve the sensuous surface of the environment. thus, for carlson, the aesthetic justification for preserving natural environment becomes inane when the aesthetic value of nature is considered in formalistic terms. the conflicts and contrast seen in the natural environment might be an aesthetic merits viewed from a formalist perspective. however, when it comes to appreciating an environment, overwhelming evidence indicates that we normally appreciate its unity of expression and consider contrasting or incongruous elements an aesthetic demerit. most of the literature on our environ-mental perception and appreciation suggests that our appreciation of an environment, whether natural or man-made, is primarily directed toward its "character," "mood," "atmosphere," or "ambience." in contrast to the cognitivist perspective on the aesthetic appreciation of nature, the noncognitivist aesthetic appreciation of nature argues that “nature as an aesthetic object is not 38 amadi & veraba the significance of aesthetic education... as determinate as a work of art” and as such should incorporate a wider range of interpretations. the non-cognitivists do not give the same importance to information but also do not deny that information about an environment can contribute to appreciation, but they do not see information-based ways of relating as being the core of aesthetic appreciation. instead these approaches give priority to for example emotion. a central non-cognitive approach is arnold berleant's aesthetics of engagement (berleant 2004). this approach breaks with traditional models of aesthetic appreciation. it for example argues that phenomena such as disinterest and objectified and distant gazing are inadequate descriptors of aesthetic appreciation of nature and the natural environment. the advocates of non-cognitivist aesthetic appreciation of natural environment argue that humans are inseparable from the natural, built, and everyday environment that they inhabit. as such, the relationship between man, the environment and natural objects should be a reciprocal one; one that challenges according to matthew auer, “the subject (observer)—object (environment) dichotomy”. this perspective is closely linked with the moralist perspective of the aesthetic appreciation of artistic and aesthetic objects and natural environments. according to this perspective especially as concerns the aesthetic appreciation of nature, the environment has some moral worth, as such should be treated as one. conclusion there is a general concern for the protection of the earth from possible annihilation. human activities have affected the normal and natural functioning of the earth. thus, the earth cries out for more moral concern towards it. environmental activists both from the wings of ethics and aesthetics have devoted much attention to the protection of the earth and have offered palpable solution to the preservation of the environment. this essay argues that the destruction of the environment and the consequent environmental degradations that follow is a result of lack of proper aesthetic education and consciousness and general lack of proper aesthetic appreciation. developing our aesthetic sensibility toward nature, therefore, can contribute to our comprehension of nature's workings and our appreciation of their value. the researchers have argued that both cognitive and non-cognitive aesthetic appreciation of nature offer insights for environmental aesthetics in a climate-changed world. however, the cognitive perspective of the aesthetic appreciation of the environment is most likely to succeed because it incorporates the contributions made by scientists and naturalists and by so doing, enriches our knowledge of the environment and its protection. references amadi, cornelius chukwudi. (2021), the ethical and aesthetic significance of igbo proverbs in eboh's philosophy. in maraizu, e. & idika, c. c. m. n (eds.) philosophy, universal dialogue and intersectionality: philosophical essay in honour of marie pauline eboh, enugu: rhyce kerex publishers. amadi, cornelius chukwudi.(2020) “the consequencies of man's abuse and misuse of scientific and technological feat”, in ogbujah, c.n. (ed.), history and philosophy of science and technology: a reader. port harcourt: pearl publishers. 39 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june ayotamuno, josiah and gobo, akuro. "municipal solid waste management in port harcourt, nigeria: obstacles and prospects", management of environmental quality, (15): 4. auer, matthew r. (2019) “environmental aesthetics in the age of climate change.” sustainability, issue 11. berleant, arnold. (2004), the aesthetic of art and nature, in carlson, a. & a. berleant (eds): the aesthetic ofnatural environments, broadview press. ___________. (2017), what is environmental aesthetics? in 1419 word, 4 june. ___________. (1998) environmental aesthetics. appeared in the encyclopedia of aesthetics. m. kelly (ed.). oxford university press. ___________. (1992), the aesthetics of environment. philadelphia: temple university press. carlson, allen. (2001)'on aesthetically appreciating human environments', philosophy & geography, vol. 4,no. 1. carlson,allen. (2000), aesthetics and the environment: the appreciation of nature, art and architecture. london: routledge. carlson, allen.(1981) "nature, aesthetic judgment, and objectivity," journal of aesthetics and art criticism 40. n d t h i s d a y , j a n u a r y , 2 2 , 2 0 2 2 . a c c e s s e d o n l i n e @ th on 13 july, 2022. galindo galindo, paz, rodriguez, jose antonio corraliza. (2000) environmental aesthetics and psychological wellbeing: relationships between preference judgments for urban landscapes and other relevant affective responses, psychology in spain, vol. 4, no. 1. nwangbu, john. (2005) niger delta: rich region, poor people, enugu: snap press ltd. olga, denac (2014) “the significance and role of aesthetic education in schooling”, creative education. ibunge, blessing.(2022) “garbage takes over streets of port harcourt”, in this day, may 18, canon. “ temilade salami the city of port harcourt and “the hanging black cloud” in https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/ 2022/01/20/the-city-of-port-harcourtand-the-hanging-black-cloud/ 40 amadi & veraba the significance of aesthetic education... svabo, connie and ekelund, kathrine. “environmental aesthetics: notes for design ecology” design ecologies, no 6 (2015). saito, yuriko. “is there a correct aesthetic appreciation of nature?” journal of aesthetic education, (18): 4. tamunobereton-ari, iyeneomie, omubo-pepple, valentine benjamin and igbani, g. n (2012). “solid waste management approach in port harcourt municipality, rivers state, nigeria: the effects on public health and the environment”, asian journal of science and technology, (4):12. ukpere, dennis reuben tobins & igwe, andrew austine.(2021) “environmental and health effects of air pollution in port harcourt, nigeria”. international journal of geography and environmental management. 7(1). walton, kendall in "categories of art," philosophical review 79 (1970): 334-67, included in philosophy looks at the arts, 2nd ed., ed. joseph margolis (philadelphia: temple university press, 1978. 41 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 abstract this work submits that the pragmatic theory of truth is a viable theory of truth based on its emphasis on the notion of practical judgment and usefulness. pragmatism has become an interesting philosophical discourse among intellectuals such as charles sander peirce, william james, john dewey; and f. s. c. schiller among others pushing the thesis that whatever works and is useful is true. the focus of the thesis is the critical examination of the pragmatic theory of truth particularly on how it has so far been able to resolve the questions surrounding the nature of truth. a conceptual analysis approach was adopted in the study, breaking down and scrutinizing ideas and beliefs, asking fundamental questions, and providing probable answers with the hope of determining whether indeed the pragmatic theory of truth can be presented as a viable way of defining whatever is true. pragmatists have always insisted that whatever is called truth needs to be relevant rather than merely independent of those creating or granting them true value. that conveys the greatest strength of the pragmatic theory of truth specifically its ability to remain dynamic and fluctuating according to real-world application of new knowledge and information, while still allowing for a realistic criterion of lasting truth. keywords: pragmatic, theory, truth and reconciliation. introduction pragmatism is a philosophical tradition that considers words and thoughts as tools and instruments for prediction, problem–solving; and action; and rejects the idea that the function of thought is to describe, or mirror realities. pragmatists contend that most philosophical topics, such as the nature of knowledge, language, concepts, meaning, belief, and science are all best viewed in terms of their practical uses and successes. however, in this paper, we will be discussing briefly what the notion of truth is, the philosophical epistemological problem of truth, the different theories that have been propounded to answer the question of truth, discussing the view of the pragmatists. explaining truth as usefulness, reconciling pragmatic and other theories of truth. the notion of truth in general, whenever we ask what something is, there are two questions we might be interested in. suppose that i ask what is gold, i might want to understand the concept ''gold'', that is what the word 'gold' means in ordinary english. alternatively, i might be seeking to know the underlying nature of the property of gold, for example, that it is an element with an atomic reading of 79 weight, of course, these projects need not be the pragmatic theory of truth: a defense and reconciliation ogunsina folasade odunayo. department of philosophy , ekiti state university ado ekiti. 199 completely distinct. my inquiry about gold would presumably pick out many important and substantive facts about gold, e.g., that gold is a malleable yellow metal for instance. yet it also seems clear that i could have a good grasp of the concept of gold without knowing all the facts about its underlying nature. “when philosophers ask what truth is, they are interested sometimes in the underlying nature of truth as its property, and sometimes both. in the case of gold, for example, giving an analysis of the concept [for instance, by supplying necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of the word] need not tell you everything about what the property of gold consists of. but in the case of truth, it is somewhat trickier to say how the theories of the concept and propositions about its properties relate. unlike the case of gold, we have no independent, empirical access to the properties of truth itself except via that concept. thus disputes over the properties of truth are frequently [but not always] fought on conceptual ground, that is over how we might best define the concept of truth” (lynch, 2001,pp. 115-117). this work is not asking about how we can know whether a belief is true or false rather it is asking when it is that a belief can be said to be true or false. it is to be hoped that a clear answer to this question may help in obtaining an answer to the question of what beliefs are true. in specific terms, it asks only ''what is truth'' or'' what is falsehood'' not ''what beliefs are true'' and'' what beliefs are false''. it is very important to keep these different questions entirely separate since any confusion between them is sure to produce an answer, which may not apply to either. most arguments are rendered in statements with the truth. according to d. w. hamlyn,(as cited in popper, 1972) truth is not an observable property. you cannot know that a proposition that expresses a belief is true merely by observing it. this according to him means that truth must be a property that statements possess. the necessity of allowing for falsehood makes it impossible to regard belief as a relation of the mind to a single object which could be said to be what is believed. if belief were so regarded, we should find that, like an acquaintance, it would not admit of the opposition of truth and falsehood, but would have to be always true. many theories have been propounded in an attempt to answer what in reality constitutes truth. some of these theories include; (a) the correspondence theory of truth: the correspondence theory is traceable to the empiricist tradition in knowledge acquisition. according to empiricists, the basis of knowledge is a direct perception of the world. truth in this way lies in the correspondence of what is asserted with what is reported. the correspondence theory presupposes the wittgenstein picture theory of meaning as found in the tractatus, which posits that language mirrors reality. the correspondence theory of truth sometimes also referred to as the common sense view of truth has been the most popular of the truth theories. the theory is 200 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june commonly formulated expressing that there is a correspondence between what is expressed and a fact. according to the theory, a judgment is correct or a proposition is true if there is a fact corresponding to it, and false if there is not. the correspondence theory of truth is a theory, that we all subscribed to in our day-to-day activities. here, the truth of a statement is assumed independent of our opinions. rather, it consists in a relation that holds between statements and something outside the general content of statements. the theory then is an objectivist theory. truth is categorically different from opinion. it is timeless. the cornerstone of the correspondence theory of truth can be traced to aristotle's dictum: to say of what is that it is not and of what is not, that it is, is false, while to say of what is, that it is, and what is not that it is not is true. (aristotle 2002) for aristotle, what “is” is what exists and what is not is what does not exist. apart from the existential import of this dictum, there is in addition a relation between saying something that is and stating the truth about it. the relationship between language and fact can therefore be established. we can deduce that correspondence attempts to relate beliefs or propositions and facts together. in the aristotelian sense, facts can be said to be entities having objective existence outside individuals. critique of the correspondence theory of truth the correspondence theory explicates 'true proposition' along the lines of a “true copy” of a tension. on the one hand, we have the original (the fact of the matter) and we compare this with the copy (the proposition) to check if they correspond with one another (rusell, 2022). if we want to test the truth of the proposition “the book is on the table”, we need to go to where the table is and confirm whether the book is lying on the table. this can only be acceptable of course where observational confrontation is practicable. it cannot and would not work in so many other situations where direct observation is not possible. the interpretation of truth as the agreement of thought with reality when critically appraised perhaps also looks a bit absurd. for example, in relating thought to reality, how seriously can thought be a likeness of something that in itself is partial? how can thought, an intangible element resembles a cube? yet another popular criticism against the correspondence theory relates to how it is possible to identify the items which are supposed to correspond particularly where there is falsehood and to say what the correspondence or non-correspondence consists (mackie, 1978). in other words, what is the relationship between a proposition and a fact? (b) the coherence theory of truth the coherence theory of truth can be traced to the rationalist tradition in the acquisition of knowledge. rationalists believe that reason as opposed to the use of the senses plays a dominant role in our attempt to gain knowledge. the coherence theory states that a statement is true if it coheres with other statements and beliefs. it measures 201 odunayo the pragmatic theory of truth: a defense and reconciliation coherence and constituency among statements within a system. its proponent is brand blanshard. according to blanshard, (as cited in woozley, 1985) in a coherent system, no proposition is arbitrary. rather every proposition is entailed by other jointly and even singly such that, no proposition will stand outside the system. blanshard further claimed that a proposition cannot be tested mainly on correspondence procedure because perception may not give accurate knowledge of it. blanshard's view is informed by the assumption that the coherence theory begins with the observation that will test the truth of a belief by seeing its implications and other logically connected beliefs. this is suggesting that all truths eventually hang together and make a unit whose articulation requires the rehearsal of all the constituent truths such that an instance of hanging together with a falsifying effect will not make the statement true. when so stated, the coherence theory of truth appears only as an improvement on the correspondence theory of truth because it accounts for the truth of many beliefs as the content of communication in matters of assertion and discord. even though coherence theory appears as an improvement on the correspondence theory, there are some problems associated with it. these problems include; 1. the coherence theory would seem too permissive as a theory of truth, such that so many propositions can be considered true just because they cohere with the system to which they belong. if this is taken then, how do we evaluate the many systems that serve as the determinants of truth for propositions? 2. it might be difficult to affirm legitimately that one system of belief is better than the other with the coherence theory of truth (dancy, 1985). 3. the notion of truth that this theory presents might only be relative to the system to which the beliefs belong (owolabi, 2000). (c). deflationary theory of truth according to the deflationary theory of truth, to assert that a statement is true is just to assert the statement itself. for example, to say, “snow is white” is true, or that it is true that 'snow is white' is equivalent to saying simply that 'snow is white'. this according to deflationary theory is all that can be said significantly about the truth of “snow is white”. for the deflationists, truth has no nature beyond what is captured in ordinary claims. thus, to say “snow is white” is true in case snow is white. the deflationists are of the view that philosophers looking for the nature of truth are bound to be frustrated because they are looking for something “that is not there”. the deflationary theory treats the truth predicate as having only a logical or grammatical function, rather than ascribing a property or relation to a truth bearer, as seen in correspondence, coherence, and pragmatic theories. (d) semantic theory of truth: the semantic theory of truth holds that truth is a property of sentences (ayer 1963). hence, the claim that a proposition is true can be made only as a formal requirement regarding the language in which the proposition itself is expressed. thus, according to tarski, “it rained today” is true if and only if it rained 202 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june today. the pragmatic as a theory of truth: a defense and reconciliation pragmatism as a theory of truth cuts across the transcendental/ empirical distinction since it questions the common presupposition that there is an invidious distinction to be drawn between various kinds of truth. for the pragmatist, the true sentence is not true because they correspond to reality, and so there is no need to worry about what sort of reality we are dealing with or what sort is required, if any. the pragmatist also sees no need to worry about whether plato or kant was right in thinking that something non-spatiotemporal makes moral judgments true, nor about whether the absence of such a thing means that such judgments are “merely expressions of emotion”, or “merely conventional” or “merely subjective”. the pragmatic theory of truth essentially considers the idea of truth to be an affair of practical experience ( james, 1948). pragmatic theory of truth according to williams james, an apostle of the pragmatic theory of truth, asserts that the truth of an idea is its predictive value. in this description, it is expedient to notice the emphasis on verifiability and usefulness. the pragmatic truth tests insist on judging the truth of a proposition by predicting the result of its truth and testing for those results. it further considers the truth of a proposition to be determined by its practicality. hence, a proposition is true if whatever it affirms is practicable and realizable, while it is false if it is not. pragmatic theory holds that true beliefs are generally useful and false when beliefs are not. all human beings need the useful and if it is useful, according to the pragmatists, it is true. if a doctor wants to cure a patient, it is useful for the doctor to have true beliefs about what will cure the patient. the pragmatic theory categorically tells us that a proposition is true if and only if believing it and acting on it, is or would be useful. according to charles pierce another advocate of the pragmatic theory, practical usefulness is a criterion of meaningfulness with the supposition that a scientific term can be considered to be meaningful on the account that it has practical consequences. accordingly, true ideas are those we can assimilate, validate, corroborate, and verify while false ideas are those we cannot (wright 1948). this shows that truth is a relation between our beliefs, statements, and the satisfaction of our expectations. the belief and the statement that paracetamol will cure my headache is true if my expectation of curing the illness (headache) is satisfied by the use of paracetamol. truth as usefulness william james understood the word “usefulness” in a very wide range. among other things, pragmatism is connected with satisfying the wills, and desires and reaching the pleasures of being in the world. in other words, something is useful if it is the measure to reach the purpose, and if it plays the role of a tool. pragmatism in a profound subjective way changes the philosophy of life, its success, and its achievements. the pragmatic conception of truth is therefore fundamentally different from all the theories of truth particularly those that treat truth as an independent, final cognitive 203 odunayo the pragmatic theory of truth: a defense and reconciliation value. however, pragmatism is as well a theory of truth, (buczynska ; james 1904) possessing the truth that is not understood as a purpose itself but on the contrary, only as a measure to reach further purposes. rational cognition of truth means reaching the end of the road. “we will never achieve the goal but we always come closer to it by improving ourselves. even when the final goal is never reached, we are accomplishing another goal. similarly, to the biological evolution that creates better and better species, in pragmatism, we are reaching the best truth, which also evolves, and changes, as a new one replaces the old one” (james, 1907, p.150). james alaso states that there are many different truths and they are close and inseparably connected to the object. “true ideas are those we can assimilate, validate, corroborate, and verify” (james, 1904). therefore, ideas or beliefs are true if it “functions”. even if false, it can be true if it “functions”. it is easy to notice that the true one will be true if it turns out to be useful and it will be convenient therefore to believe in it. william james seems to have a psychological view of the problems of knowing or cognition. our faith makes a view true. “person x believes the judgment is true”. through our acceptance, we take theories for granted. the longer we will be convinced of the idea's usefulness, the longer it will be true. a similar conception of truth in the doctrines of the scientologist church, where according to its founder ronald hubbard, the truth for you is what you believe, is true. you do not have to believe in scientology but you have to find your truth, the truth that will be good for you. pragmatism principle was to james “an interpretation of all kinds of thought through drawing the right practical consequences (james, 1907). a pragmatic principle was a tool for understanding and comparing different conceptions. the practical consequence of the view is the whole of the relation between an outlook and individual consciousness or rather lots of much separate consciousness. however, if we cannot translate certain ideas into concrete experience language, they have to be rejected as being cognitively empty. practical consequences for william james are always concrete and individual. there are no abstractive, general practical consequences. they always exist “for someone”, for individual consciousness. moreover, they are not the same for everybody. pragmatism in its depiction of truth meets the human being halfway(james,1907). it is a simplified thinking system, perfectly adjusted to the human being's needs but the one from the street, someone who hales theory and desires to achieve practical benefits immediately (james, 1907). the american system of education places emphasis on practical thinking rather than theoretical. theoretical thinking requires more knowledge and its practical application and so, it is more difficult. the core of this american system is the ability to acquire knowledge and its practical application. moreover, it is good to know what is useful, and what should be known in practice and then you can supplement your education as far as you need it. such a model of education while it makes americans extremely creative in thinking, does not mean that they do not make mistakes. pragmatism, as mentioned before, has a big advantage in that it gives the right to make mistakes and to correct them, while the strict doctrine tries to foresee all possible circumstances. in william james' consideration and thinking about the world, we use many ways, but the most popular is common sense, which is also called realism. its virtue is comfort 204 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june and transparency in characterizing the world. common sense is based on everyday experience, tradition, and authority. theory can be in agreement with common sense in such a way that it considers its application in recurrent actions. this way of thinking is fully adjusted to the individual's needs and changing circumstances in this world. people have gotten different needs so they apply different methods of satisfying them. emotional, intellectual, and practical needs, which are an inherent element of human life often, push a man to discover such forms of activity, which are most right for him. the “usefulness” james wrote about, in the contemporary world has a very important position in people's lives and their everyday matters. a lack of users does not attract our attention and we forget about it very quickly when something has no meaning to us. when we perform different activities, it gives us a very bad impression, experiences, and emotions but not necessarily without “useful” consequences. these consequences have a good influence on our further behavior. it means that if we do something wrong and the consequences are unpleasant at the same time they will lead us in the future if only we draw the right conclusions. william james insists that searching for the truth was a certain habit of action. such habits give us what we want and lead us to where we want to get. it is worth mentioning here, that owning the truth was also a tool for proper and effective action. theories became the instruments and the tools, which served to link and systematize observing sentences and calculate which make occurring of certain events prognosis possible, events which are described by the observing sentences. according to william james' pragmatism, the value of an idea is dependent upon its usefulness in the practical world rather than its absolute truth. the pragmatic theory of truth is unique amongst its peers and stands as one of the most innovative and subsequently criticized theories of truth currently formulated. deriving from what is often seen by many philosophers as an extremely subjective philosophy, the pragmatic theory of truth states that a belief is true as far as it fulfills some role or achieves some particular result and that it remains true only insofar as it continues to yield beneficial results relative to our circumstances. critique of the pragmatic theory of truth two major critics of the theory (russell, 2013), bertrand russell and hillary putman each raised independent objections to this assertion, each of particularly serious importance. russell on his part takes issue with the allegedly subjective aspects of the pragmatic theory of truth, inferring that numerous inherently untrue or even immoral actions can be justified by the pragmatists' definitions of truth. likewise,(putman, 2013) raised his criticism, that being the necessity of relevant 'consequences' to an action or state of affairs means that there are numerous areas of the past that constitute potentially 'essentially evidence – transcendent truths'. in the meantime, the advocator of pragmatic theory purports that the majority of these and other criticism leveled against the pragmatic theory of truth are just misinterpretations of what is meant by the pragmatic theory of truth and how it relates to the rest of the world, including what is referred to as “the fact” (james 1907). it is this major partition that the pragmatists insist upon between facts and truths, with the emphasis that truths need to be relevant rather than independent of those creating them. here lies the greatest strength of the pragmatic theory of truth. that is its ability to 205 odunayo the pragmatic theory of truth: a defense and reconciliation remain dynamic and fluctuating according to the real-world application of new knowledge and information while allowing for realistic criteria for lasting if not permanent, truths. the pragmatic theory of truth has undergone several iterations (repetitions) in its lifespan, though certain elements remain consistent and constant throughout all formulations. one of these iterations is that pragmatism has its root in fallibilism and the development of truth as new and contradictory evidence becomes known. fallibilism is the acceptance that despite our best efforts, there is no single truth that can be said to be true with total certainty until every single avenue of investigation has been exhausted and until the last man has had his say and contributed his share. as such, pragmatists regard truth as a developing project that is likely impossible to complete. this does not prevent relevant truths from being formulated, however, as the purpose of truth is now constructive rather than reflective of the base state of the world (dewey, 2013). another iteration is the location of truth as an internal, human state rather than external objective quality of the world. william james uses the example of constellations in the night sky to demonstrate this point, stating that while the stars “suffer us” to impose our unique order on their formations in the sky, they are never the fewer ideas that have relevance only relative to the human observer who takes them into account (james, 1909). truth thus becomes something that is known, thought, or said about reality, and consequently constitutes numerically an additional to it. the necessity for truths to have some form of agreement with reality is still a key aspect of the pragmatic definition of truth, as it is with all theories of truth, though it is clear that what is meant by pragmatists by this phrase is substantially different. the most objectionable aspect of this theory comes from james' insistence that a reality independent of human thinking is not simply difficult to find, but impossible. instead, the pragmatists differentiate truth from the facts of the matter, by examining whether the beliefs regarding the object or state of affairs in question will have any meaningful practical consequences for those who are addressing that state of affairs. however, bertrand russell believes that the pragmatic theory of truth fails to offer sufficient grounds for refusing certain moral truths that he regards as standing on higher, universal grounds. bertrand russell's objections to the pragmatic theory of truth can best be summarized as moral objections rather than metaphysical ones. his criticism is twofold. firstly, he believes that james' theory of truth allows for any belief to be held as true as long as it “pays to believe”, regardless of even the facts of the matter. this for russell has unacceptable consequences for both moral standards and simple factual statements (russell, 2013). the moral objection is that given the right combination of circumstances and enough consensus amongst a population, any idea can be found to be correct. in this case, russell himself made two mistakes. the first is the assumption that any human population of sufficient diversity would find a set of beliefs that guides the action of a person or group. james and contemporary neopragmatism richard rorty emphasizes that any pragmatic moral theory must necessarily encompass as many perspectives as possible to be truly workable in a long-term way necessitated by any effective pragmatic truth (rorty, n.d) secondly, russell makes the mistake of assuming that moral values have some source outside of the social moral codes that are created and enforced by a given 206 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june community (russell, 2013). he believes that a theory of truth such as pragmatism that appeals to social rather than objective ground for morality is inherently doomed to result in a 'might is right' paradigm with no standards of ascertaining right from wrong. however, given the pragmatic requirement for any truth to be vetted by its continued functioning “in the long and overall”, it seems unlikely that any moral theory based on the pragmatic theory of truth would fail to meet the criteria of serving the best interests of as many human beings as possible. moreover, those that do not would be swiftly abandoned or else forced out of favor by those they fail to take account of. while russell's moral arguments against the pragmatic theory of truth appear to be largely based on his distaste for the idea of non-objective morality, the underlying argument against pragmatism is that pragmatism allows for such a plurality of truths as to be functionally useless. further criticism from james' work expands russell's objections further, that if satisfaction of a desired end is all that is necessary to have a true belief, then how do we account for pleasing beliefs with erroneous facts or dissatisfactory beliefs that coincide with fact? however, both of these arguments rest on a similar mistake because pragmatism has never made the argument that truth is independent of facts, only that truth is made relative to both the facts and our needs and interests. in the case of russell's objection, the pragmatist would respond that the only reason why both beliefs would be seen as equally valid is that there is no definitive fact, that would otherwise invalidate one side as a candidate for truth, nor is there any great upshot to one belief over the other. in response to these objections, james believed that it is the same “inherent relation to the reality of a belief that gives us that specific truth satisfaction,” and that any view that contradicts the factual basis of reality would be a belief that would not even survive its first test of validity on the empirical method. (james, 1908) thus, russell's objection to pragmatism on the grounds of its rejection of factual reality stems from a misunderstanding of how pragmatists define the relation between facts and truths. conclusion despite the various objections leveled against the pragmatic theory truth, its strengths are far better situated to overcoming the criticism of bertrand russell and hillary putman. pragmatic theory and its emphasis on the distinction between facts and truths, and its important emphasis on fallibilism are the key undertones of the pragmatic theory of truth. the pragmatic theory of truth can maintain a cohesive view of the truth as a goaloriented view of the fact of the world for which different criteria for validity apply and which allows for a more realistic sense of what a true belief is versus other objective theories. despite these advantages, many remain skeptical still that the pragmatic theory of truth is workable, particularly regarding the criticisms raised over its supposed inability to deal with truths regarding the past. howbeit, these criticisms seem to be more emotional than substantive in addition, another major strength of the pragmatic theory of truth is its flexibility, which allows truth never to be above the suspicions of knowledge and evidence that might prove contrary. in many respects, this is as well a source of some apparent discomfort for some critics. it seems, therefore, that the major fault with the pragmatic theory of truth is its inability to accommodate the standard of objective truths 207 odunayo the pragmatic theory of truth: a defense and reconciliation that other theories have promised, it is however problematic. finally, it is instructive to maintain despite all criticisms that the pragmatic theory of truth is a theory that understands the role of human goals and is genuinely interested in interpreting knowledge that is the continuing necessity for opening and expanding the dialogue to find ever more useful truths in a changing world. it is by objective measurements probably well suited to accomplish this unique role references ndaristotle, (2002.). metaphysics.translated by sachs, joe(2 edition). santa fe, n.m. green lion press. ayer, a. j. (1963). truth. in: the concept of a person. palgrave, london. p. 166. buczynska, h. : james ,w. (1904). the meaning of truth.cambridge university press. p.105. dancy, j. (1985). an introduction to contemporary epistemology. new york; wiley ltd. p. 115 dewey,j. (2013). a short catechism concerning truth. trans. array pp. 450 la: pragmatism course package. rockney jacobsen. ist waterloo on: laurier printing services. pp.154168. james , w. (1948). essays in pragmatism. new york: hafner publishing co. p. 214 james, w. (2010). a dialogue. trans. array the meaning of truth: a sequel to pragmatism. austrailia floating press. pp. 15-27. james,w. (1907). lecture vi: pragmatisms conception of truth. trans. array pragmatism. pp. 77-78. james,w. (1907). the meaning of truth. cambridge university press. p. 15. james,w. (1908). the pragmatist account of truth and its misunderstanders. philosophical reviews 113. lynch, m. p. (2001). the nature of truth; classic and contemporary perspectives. a bradford book, the mit press cambridge, massachusetts, london, england. p. 115117. mackie, j. l. (1978). truth probability and paradox, oxford claredon press. p. 9. owolabi, k. a. (2000). issues and problems in philosophy. ibadan; grovas publishing press. p. 62 popper, k. r. (1972). objective knowledge, oxford, clarendon press. p. 44 putman, h. (2013). james's theory of truth. trans. array pp. 450 la: pragmatism course package. rockney jacobsen. ist waterloo on: laurier printing services. pp. 166 180. rorty, r. pragmatism, relativism, and irrationalism. trans. array pp. 160175. russell, b. (2022). my philosophical development. united kingdom: taylor & francis.p. 188 russell, b. (2013). the definition of truth. trans. array pp. 450 la: pragmatism course package. rockney jacobsen. ist waterloo on: laurier printing services. p. 175. woozley, a. d. (1978). theory of knowledge, london: hutchinson and co. publishers. p. 126 wright, h. b. (1999). crispin eds.a companion to the philosophy of language, p. 309. 208 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june 1 covid—19 responses in nigeria and the preparedness of the traditional and cultural health care delivery to combating the pandemic: the need for the guidnance and counselling collaboration. emmanuel ikenna okafor (ph.d) carolina chika osinachi (ph.d) and grace obiageli odinye abstract covid-19 pandemic has been responded to by the whole world in general and nigeria particularly in various complex measures. there has been the request for vaccination, and consistent need for precautions including the sit at home or lockdown measures. in all these responses, the virus is said to have returned back, in a more severe and deadly spread. the second wave has reactivated the world’s mind to insist on a vaccine. presently, vaccines are said to be available, but reasonable number of nigerians have put up questions and suspicion against these vaccines. on this point, no body has challenged the natural, traditional and cultural health care delivery measures applied by many nigerians including residents of the rural settlements. it is this fear and argument on the use of covid-19 vaccine and contemporary nigerian people’s disregard to traditional and cultural health care delivery systems that form the problem that this paper is designated to address. be that as it may, african traditional medical and health care systems should be acknowledged in the quest for a therapy for the treatment or management of the pandemic. even though traditional healthcare systems have their deficiencies, the research is nevertheless is designed to examine the effectiveness of the african traditional and cultural health care systems as an alternative to the use of vaccine among nigerians. it is also discovered that the disagreement between nigerians on the use of vaccines and reliability of african health care systems call for the involvement of the guidance and counseling experts. the research adopts comparative and phenomenological research approaches. data collected were analyzed with phenomenological method of analysis. data were also sourced from primary and secondary sources. it is recommended that government should look into the complaints against vaccines, and effectiveness of african traditional health care system before making decisions on the use of the vaccines, etc. keywords: covid-19, vaccines, african traditional/cultural health care systems, guidance and counseling, pandemic and nigeria. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 2 introduction the entire world has responded to covid-19 with several laid down guides and lockdown of major human activities in the world throughout march 2020 to early 2021 in the management or treatment of the virus, there had been opinions and counter opinions for and against the use of certain drugs in treating or managing affected patients. isolation centers were also set aside for proper management of victims. in 2021, there is the speculation that the second wave of the virus has begun thereby necessitating the introduction of vaccines or vaccination. among nigerians, the use of vaccines has been challenged by reasonable number of the people, including the literate and illiterate individuals. the typical uneducated nigerians reject the vaccination exercise as an unnecessary plan because they believe that the virus does not exist at all. but the formally educated ones argue from the point of certification of the chemical content of the vaccines produced for the vaccination. this group of individuals argues among other things that virus is hardly prevented or controlled by the use of vaccines or vaccination. the most frequent question they always ask is:"why has hiv/aids existed without any vaccine or vaccination? this bothers on the fear that whatever vaccine that could be introduced would do more harm than good. these fear and argument have given rise to the problem this research is designed to handle. the modern people also rely on modern medicine so much that they disregard traditional and cultural health care delivery system. therefore, another problem that bothers this research is that, since the modern people do not have regard to traditional and cultural health care delivery system what would be the preparedness of traditional and cultural health care delivery system in combating the pandemic? it is on this background that asso. prof ituma e. anya (personal communication, 11 may, 2020) said that religious faith had been a barrier against people’s patronage to traditional medical system. he acknowledges the effectiveness of african traditional medicine or health care delivery and the clear difference between christianity, african traditional religion and the traditional and cultural health care delivery system. therefore, religious attachment is one of the contributory factors to modern people’s disregard to traditional and cultural health care system. african traditional medicine and healthcare delivery system have their weaknesses, accruing from their lack of dosage, unhygienic, unscientific practices etc, but in any case, african traditional medical and health care delivery systems ought to be regarded and acknowledged in the search for a therapy for the treatment or management of the covid-19 pandemic. on this basis, the research aims at examining the efficacy of the african traditional and cultural health care delivery system, which can serve as an alternative to the adoption of vaccine or vaccination among nigerians. it is found in the research that the disagreement between nigerians on the use of vaccines and reliability of african health care delivery system would require the involvement of guidance and counseling experts. this paper adopts comparative and phenomenological research method. data used in the research work were gathered from primary and secondary sources. it is recommended amidst other things that government should look into the okafor covid—19 responses in nigeria and … 3 complaints against covid-19 vaccines, and effectiveness of african traditional health care delivery system before making decisions on the use of the vaccines. clarification of terms the concepts that are given some explanations or definitions include: covid-19, vaccine, african traditional cultural health care systems, guidance and counseling, pandemic and nigeria. the virus covid-19 has been explained by world health organization in okafor (2020:305) thus: covid-19 is the name given by the world health organisation/who on february 11, 2020 for the disease caused by the novel corona virus sars/cov2 it started in wuhan, china in late 2019 and has since spread worldwide. covid-19 is an acronym that stands for coronal virus disease of 2019. historically on december 31, 2019 a strange new pneumonia of unknown cause was reported to the chinese case or country office. a chester of these case originally appeared in wuhan … china and covid-19 is a respiratory infection that originated from wuhan, has gone round the world disturbing, virtually all aspects of human livelihood. it is clear that covid-19 is a respiratory disease. africans, traditionally had measures of tackling respiratory health issues. vaccine in a general sense could be conceived as preventive medicine. summers (2001:1585) defines vaccine as: “a substance which contains the virus that cause a disease and is used to protect people from that disease”. vaccine serves as a substance that protects the body against the same virus that causes a disease. african traditional and cultural health care system is a concept that affiliates itself with african traditional medicine and other cultural ways of promoting health in african settings. mume (1984:204) explains traditional medicine thus: traditional medicine has been designed as an art, science, philosophy and practice following definite natural, biological, chemical, mental and spiritual laws for the restoration and maintenance of health and the correction of bodily disorders… the practitioner of traditional medicine himself with what constitutes good moral living learns to detect by spiritual diagnostic signs, how, when and where departure from the normal or natural has taken place … in the practice of traditional medicine in the present days, it is not all health issue that are spiritually diagnosed. in some cases, empirical laboratory diagnoses are done while the traditional medical practitioners administer the appropriate herbs, roots etc. but in a situation where the illness defiles treatment, spiritual diagnoses in form of divinations are done to know if the cause of the disease can be unveiled or revealed. from the information above, one observes that for the traditional igbo, sickness or illness is deviation from the natural, from the normal bodily cosmic aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 4 harmony, (health/life) the intricate connecting forces that operate in a web-like fashion must be discerned and normalized (madu, 2004:26-27). traditional medicine does not end at the pure medical treatment to correct deviation from normal or natural body state, and cosmic harmony connected to spiritual forces. it includes other african traditional and cultural practices that are medicinal. for example, consumption of certain foods, fruits, vegetables, ointments, and other healthy cultural practices. in summary, african traditional and cultural healthcare system could be said to be all the traditional and cultural medical administration management and practices involving supernatural forces, empirical process, and medicinal habitual practices of the traditional and cultural african peoples to return to normal or natural state of the body from this deviation in human life or health. guidance and counseling is presently a field of study in academia. traditionally, among africans, guidance and counseling was a responsibility of elders to children in various african communities. parents guide and counsel their children, but the african traditional society believes that every child is for everybody’s guidance and counseling because every child is expected to attend to the service of the adult members of the society, even though they are not their parents. this is why the igbo apply the adage “nwabunwa ora”. every child should assist any adult member of his immediate community on errand. more so, every adult or elder owes the child, the responsibility of guiding and counseling him on the right ways to behave, and at the same time assists the child as the case may be, on material needs. but in this context, guidance and counseling is viewed from a professional view point. counseling, according to akinade (2006:4) can be professionally defined as: “… a profession that strive to assist individuals called counselees to resolve their peculiar challenges, concerns, difficulties, worries or doubts in diverse areas of their lives such as in academics, careers, and socio-personal matters”. okonkwo and nnamha (2016:81) see counseling as “the application of mental health, physiological or human development principles through cognitive, effective behavioural or systematic strategies that address wellness, personal growth, or career development as pathology”. in the context of the need for guidance and counseling in this paper, comprehensive information on causes and effects of covid-19 or the corona virus and vaccines are very pivotal as regards its pathology from standard medical and disease information from research experts. guidance itself is not too far from counseling, it is more of guide. nigeria on the other hand is one of the most populous countries at least in africa. nigeria has been discussed by princeton (2020:2) thus: nigeria, officially the federal republic of nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and its federal capital territory, abuja. the country is located in west africa and shares land borders with the republic of benin in the west, chad and cameroon in the east, and niger in the north. its coast in the south lies on the gulf of guinea okafor covid—19 responses in nigeria and … 5 on the atlantic ocean. there are over 500 ethnic groups in nigeria of which three largest ethnic groups are the hausa, igbo and yoruba.. nigeria is regarded as the giant of africa. her flag colour symbols are green, white, green and a coat of arm with eagle and two horses among other designs. pandemic according to summers (2001:1023) is: “…an illness or disease that affects the population of a large area”. covid-19 spread from asia, particularly china to the rest of the countries of the world. it seems to be the most pandemic disease in the history of the world. the corona virus called covid-19 has broken the world history in terms of its speed of spreading and places it extended its deadly arms. the implication of this definition is that pandemic might not affect the whole world but when a case affects a reasonable number of people in different parts of the world, it could be termed pandemic. traditional health care delivery in the midst of contemporary people’s views in combating covid-19: the need for guidance and counseling frankly speaking, the response of nigerians to emergence of the pandemic has been very poor. the poor attention to the virus in nigeria could be attributed to so many factors. the suspected factors include: belief system (superstition, religion or faith), cultural perception, attitude of the leading major stakeholders. majority of nigerians find it difficult to be protective against the pandemic. the only avenues in which most nigerians are forced to respond very well on guidelines are on their visit to banks, official and well secured gatherings or meetings, academic physical examinations, lectures, seminars etc. but generally speaking, nigerians response to covid-19 is very poor. at a time when transportation routes are opened, the simple rule on passengers seating arrangement is not honoured among commercial/public and private motorists. okafor et al (2020:311) have condemned the attitude of nigerians; both the government and other major stakeholders on the management of covid-19 saga in nigeria when they lament that distribution and sharing of little foodstuff given to the poor masses was so appalling. in a situation whereby fellow citizens were suffering, high profile members of the same country who were entrusted with the task to share palliatives still hoard, or hide reasonable quantity and parts of the relief material shows a very poor response to their brothers’ agony created by covid-19. on the other side of the coin, some civilized people and some elites in nigeria do not regard or honour traditional and cultural health care delivery system. one of the causes of such disregard to african traditional medicine is that africans historically conceived that disease and illness was embedded in “witchcraft”. abdullahi (n.d:5) emphasizes that “… the conception of diseases and illness in africa, was historically embedded in “witchcraft”, where, in western knowledge, witchcraft reinforces “backwardness”, “superstition” and “dark continent”. the practice of witchcraft had been in existence in the western world, yet it truly forms insignificantly, a part of the suspicions against african traditional medicine and healthcare delivery systems. madu (2004:24) is of the view that: “…the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 6 tradimedicalists claim to cure all disease (ogwo nnu oria) and therefore dispense the same medicine for different ailments… also lack of dosage of traditional medicine is another painful factor…” in most cases african medicine and health care delivery systems acknowledge that one medicine or health care delivery system cures so many illnesses. onunwa (1990:88) adds: in spite of the recent successes being registered by traditional medical practitioners, the system is still fraught with problems which limit its scope to compete favourably with western orthodox medical healing. the first is that the practitioners of this ancient art still keep their therapeutic techniques and discoveries out of reach of any other person, even from professional colleagues. traditional medical practitioners create doubts on the authenticity of what they claim of the treatment and the genuineness of the procedure and processes of dispensing medical and health care services. these, and other factors constitute the disregard, the civilized nigerians and elites have against traditional and cultural healthcare delivery system in nigeria. but the traditional and cultural settings and environment have gone a long way in making success and progress ever before the arrival of covid-19 in the nigeria. covid-19 is a respiratory infection, and the nigerian traditional and cultural environment and health management life, had prepared a stronger and safer health management system which combats its scourge. okafor (2019:68) opines that: traditional medicine is responsive in the treatment/management of tuberculosis… five nuts of wonderful kola (buchliolzucorialea) when taken with warm water heal tuberculosis by destroying the germ tubercle bacillus. kevin onuma cited by oladele in madukasi (2017:49) buttresses thus: bitter kola improves lung functions: bitter kola (garcina kola) has been used for centuries to treat chest colds in traditional medicine, but research has taken a look and found out why it is effective. a study in the 2009 issue of the internet journal of pulmonary medicine, performed on mice, reports of garcinia kola improved respiratory function after 28 days of use of a garcinia extract. these two plants or nuts are among the substances traditionally and culturally used by nigerians in treatment and management of lung and respiratory health cases covid-19 itself, is a respiratory health issue. dr. ugochukwu uzondu (personal communication, 14, june, 2020) said he contacted the virus and was confirmed positive when he went for its laboratory test in united kingdom but as an igbo man, who studies and was brought up in different environments in nigeria, he decided to drink hot water always, bath with hot water, take bitter kola, ginger, garlic and honey always, within 5 days he gained the normal body state. afterward, he went for the test again and was tested negative. dr. mrs. chinenye uzondu (personal communication, 18 july, 2020) stated that she had the same challenge her husband dr. ugochukwu uzondu had according to her, she used the same medical and management system her husband used, but the difference was okafor covid—19 responses in nigeria and … 7 that she was pregnant and could not take commensurate quantities of those substances her husband took, but she was healed within 8 days. therefore, it is agreeable that traditional foods have health benefits that can make their consumers stand the chances of getting prepared against certain diseases while they are at the same time observing some guidelines to control the disease. it could be said that nigerian traditional and cultural health care delivery system has prepared itself against certain diseases like covid-19 because all these plants like: ginger, garlic, bitter kola, wonderful kola, hot water, scent leaves, etc have been of both, traditional and cultural health and nutritional habit. but the problem is that modern nigerian peoples do not attach required values to them. okoroigwe and nnam (2019:351) buttress thus: conservation of traditional foods has to do with proper management, maintenance and utilization of the resources for long term benefit of mankind. in the same way, conservation of agrobiodversity and/or traditional foods entails wise use of indigenous foods in such a way that subsequent generations also benefit from it. this present generation should take up the responsibility of conserving these favourable food and medical/medicinal reserves already prepared by the traditional and cultural nigerian society. more so, some of the symptoms of covid-19 are shared with malaria and typhoid symptoms, for example, sneezing, cold, etc. some traditional herbs also handle such symptoms. agwu, et al (2019) point thus: this research investigated the potential for cymbopogon citratus (paoles: poaleae), a widely cultivated herb on tropical and subtropical gardens … to serve as big pesticide against mosquito vectors .c. citratius, produces many photochemical such as phenols, alkaloids, saoonins, glycosides … c. citratus has various medicinal uses including the treatment for malaria, fever, nervousness, hypertension, eczema, colds, headache, stomach ache, abdominal pain …. the herb meant here is what is commonly known as lemon grass. as it is captured here, is good for the treatment of colds. cold is a symptom of covid-19, cold is also respiratory barrier. with all these traditional and cultural medical/healthcare delivery awareness and its weather and climate, nigerian traditional environment was well prepared before the arrival of covid-19. this could be part of the reasons why nigerians did not record much covid-19 cases, despite nigerians’ disobedience to covid-19 rules or guidelines. in the other parts of the world, for example, italy, spain, china, south africa, etc, it was more catastrophic than nigeria. aja and titilayo (2016:3) point thus: the plant amaranthus has been of longtime medicinal precursor in religious and traditional setting. amaranthus is best used to treat stomach flu, diarrhea, and gastroenteritis. this herb is also useful in stopping aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 8 menstruation, and for contraception. it reduces tissue swelling caused due to sprains, and tick bites when applied externally. leaf poultices have been implicated in treating mouth and throat inflammations, sores … throat cases are linked to respiratory health problems. the leaf poultices have been found to be good in treating throat inflammation. no doubt the leaf poultices will have some remedies to subsidize covid-19 disease. there are many traditional and cultural health practices in nigeria. after the first wave of covid19, the world health organization later announced the arrival of the second wave. at this time, vaccines have been produced for vaccination, which should be run in stages. this sets another question for nigerians preparedness to be vaccinated. most people in nigeria have objections against the vaccination. some have criticized it through social media claiming that the contents are dangerous to human life. some believe that it is a plan to reduce the numerical strength of africans, etc. some have decided to watch the effect of the vaccines on the vaccinated persons before they can decide otherwise. it is on this basis that the guidance and counseling collaboration is needed. the opposing opinions need to be compared in addition to the prepared settings of nigerian traditional and cultural health care delivery system, to provide a proper solution to the contradictions or confusions. dr. ofojebe c.c (personal communication, 4 february, 2021) who is a professional guidance counselor said that it is always better to allow people express themselves before counseling. on this note, he suggested the following conditions. first, the vaccine should not be made compulsory for citizens now to avoid unnecessary unrest. secondly, all the traditional health care systems which are already on the ground should be applied to the letter pending the confirmation of the effects of the vaccines and finally, he stated that the vaccines should always be given free of charge to citizens even after the confirmation. dr. mrs. chinwe okafor (personal communication, 6 february, 2021) agreed with dr. c.c ofojebe but adds that even when the vaccines are confirmed to be very good, nigerians must have to hold on those traditional and cultural health care delivery systems in case any other health problem which might be so disastrous occurs. if there is collaboration with guidance and counseling experts, there will better response and higher preparedness of nigerians towards covid-19 pandemic. recommendations the paper recommends the following: 1. traditional and cultural health care system should be encouraged by the aboriginals of nigeria contemporary society. 2. government should equip isolation centres with both modern drugs and traditional/cultural health care measures. 3. precautions should be more concentrated on the elderly people because they are the more vulnerable. okafor covid—19 responses in nigeria and … 9 4. government should also look into the complaints against vaccines and effectiveness of african traditional health care system before making further decisions on the issue of the vaccines or whatever measures that maybe introduced. 5. government at the three tiers of government viz: federal, state, and local, governments, non-governmental organizations (ngos) billionaires, millionaires in nigeria should pay responsive attention to health care delivery system by funding, equipping pragmatic monitoring of hospital activities, and building of traditional health care hospitals and centres. 6. traditional medical and health care practitioners should pay attention to their deficiencies to enable them to make formidable successes. conclusion: health is wealth they say; a healthy nation is always a wealthy nation. it has been shown in this paper that the traditional medical and health care delivery systems face some challenges or weaknesses that are based on superstition, unscientific, and unhygienic practices among other things. these weaknesses have diverted the attention of nigerians to cosmopolitan or orthodox medicine and healthcare. nigeria with her present interest in orthodox medicine has failed to develop her traditional and cultural health care services like most countries in asia do. on the outbreak of corona virus – covid-19, it was very difficult to depend on countries in europe and america to cope up against the pandemic. in nigeria today, the neglected traditional and cultural health care delivery is seemingly becoming a cornerstone on health issues for those who are deeply observant. again, nigerians do not give adequate or considerable response to neither covid-19 rules or guidelines nor the use of vaccines/vaccination. meanwhile, nigeria traditional and cultural health delivery has already prepared a better background for treatment and management of covid-19, and had saved covid-19 patients or victims. for the use of vaccines, nigerians are averagely ready or prepared not to use the vaccines. finally, it has been advocated in this paper, that collaboration with guidance and counseling experts is highly needed. it is their professional directives in this article that this research uses to harmonize the differences in responses of nigerians after making comparative evaluation of these differences. it is expected that compliance to the suggestion made, will control social unrest these disagreements can cause. it is concluded here that all these attentions put together will tackle covid-19. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 10 references abdulahi, a.a (n.d). “trends and challenges of traditional medicine in africa”. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 1-18. retrieved 1/2/2021 agwu, e. j. et al (2019). “mosquitocidal potential of cymbopogen citratus (lemon grass) on aedes aegyptilinn” (ed) u. nzewi. journal of liberal studies; 460-475, 17(3). aja, j.n and titilayo, s.t (2016). “analysis of the proximate and medicinal properties from leaves of four taxa of amaranthus species”. n.chumaudeh (ed). journal of the literati philosophia, 1-20,3 (2). akinade, e.a (2006). “you, yes, you too need counseling”. 25 th inaugural lecture of the lagos state university. lagos: lasu press. madu, j.e (2004). honesty to african cultural heritage. calabar: franedoh publishers (nig) ltd. madukasi, f. c (2017). “symbolism and symbolic significance of bitter kola “akuilu”:breaking mystical boundaries in culture and creation for solving human problems in igbo traditional religion”. (e.d) n. chuma – udeh, journal of the litreati philosophia, 42-53, 4(2), 2017. mume, j.o (1984). “traditional medicine in nigeria”. (ed) p.n.o ejiofor cultural revival in igboland. onitsha: university publishing company. okafor, e.i et. al (2020). covid-19, violence and social inequality in africa: a call to awaken africa moral consciousness” (ed) 1.akalu, covid-19 pandemic, ict and education system in africa: challenges and opportunities, proceedings of the international conference of the association for the promotion of african studies on impact of covid-19 on africa and the quest. quest for afro centric perspectives, 17 september, 202, 303-321, september, 2020. okafor e.i (2019). african religion, culture and health promotion (ed) e.j.o, ndubuisi oracle of wisdom journal of philosophy and public affairs; 6573, 3(1), 2019. okafor, e.i (2020). “traditional african religious conviction and challenges posed by covid-19 pandemic in africa” (ed) a.l kalu. the socio-religious dynamics of covid-19 pandemic in africa. proceedings of the international conference of the association for the promotion of african studies on the impact of covid-19 on africa and the quest for afro centric perspective. 300-319, 17 september, 2020. okonkwo, m.c and nnamha, g (2016). “counseling psychology: recovery of human values” (ed) n. chuma udeh. journal of the literati philosophia, 80-88, 3(1); onitsha:bookpoint educational publishers. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ okafor covid—19 responses in nigeria and … 11 okoroigwe, e. c. and nnam, m.n (2019). “loss of agrobiodiversity: causes and nutritional consequences” (e.d) u. nzewi, journal of liberal studies, 347356, 17(2), october, 2019. onunwa, u. (1990). studies in igbo traditional religion. obosi: pacific publishers. princeton, w. (2020). “nigeria, federal republic of nigeria”, www.defintions.net 1-12, 21-27 march, 2020 summers, d (2001). longman dictionary of contemporary english. england: pearson education limited http://www.defintions.net/ an assessment of the theory of environmental ethics anthony ugochukwu nwokoye abstract environmental issues have become problematic over the years, ranging from the conflicting theories of environmental ethics to the appropriate ethics suitable in addressing environmental problems. the constant abuse of the environment, the destruction of biodiversity and its correspondent threat to posterity are the foundational and fundamental insight that motivated this research work. it becomes necessary to pinpoint the appropriate environmental ethics to address the pressing environmental needs of the ecosystem. in an attempt to proffer solutions to the environmental challenges, numerous environmental ethics were developed to express the relation between human beings and the environment. however, this paper focuses on the assessment of the two broad divisions of environmental ethics: anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. this paper employs the philosophical method of analysis to examine the two environmental ethical theories in line with the appropriateness in ameliorating the pressing environmental challenges. this paper discovered that ecocentric environmental ethics is an inclusive ethics that accommodates all the members of the ecosystem and places intrinsic value on human beings and nonhuman beings. it becomes paramount if such environmental ethical approach should be adopted by individuals, government, corporate bodies, organizations, et cetera to manage the rising environmental issues. inasmuch as technology, civilization, industrialization, technologies are necessary for human existence, this paper calls for moderation in exploration of the environment for human‘s benefit. keywords: environmental ethics, anthropocentrism, ecocentrism, intrinsic value 1. introduction some environmental ethical philosophers have attacked the traditional western deontological and teleological ethical theories on the ground that they exclude the moral consideration of non-human species; this exclusion, they argued is the basic cause of environmental degradation. callicott stated categorically that environmental ethics begins with the assumption that traditional metaphysics and moral theories are the root of environmental problems than tools for their solution. the traditional ethical theories impose limitations only on interpersonal freedom of action and on personal freedom in relation to society as a whole, neglecting the place of environment in man‘s relationship. a historical excursion to western ethical theory will reveal that nothing or little was said about man‘s relation to nature, the major consideration was on how man relates with himself, others and the society. callicott sees this as a great negligence or vacuum in the nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … ethical history of the west, and proposed that an environmental ethic would define the extent of human freedom of action in relationship to non-human natural entities and to nature as a whole. in reference to leopold maxim, ―a thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community‖ (262), he envisaged a holistic non-anthropocentric environmental ethic. a holistic non-anthropocentric ethic regards non-human species as possessing intrinsic value because they are members of the ecosystem, and their continued existence depends on the health of the ecosystem. furthermore, he enumerated what po-keung stated as the basic problem of environmental ethics; i take it that the major task of environmental ethics is the construction of a system of normative guidelines governing man‘s attitudes, behavior, and action towards his natural environment. the central question to be asked is how ought to man, either as an individual or as a group, to behave or to act towards nature? by nature, i mean the non-human environment man finds himself in…. any viable environmental ethics, it seems to me, should provide adequate answers to three questions (1) what is the nature of nature? (2) what is the nature of man? (3) how should man relate…to nature? (116) callicott once said, ―to begin adequately to address environmental problems and eventually ameliorate the environmental crises, (1) metaphysical foundations must be brought into alignment with ecology—the principal basic science of environment—and (2) ethical theory must be enlarged so as to include within its purview both nonhuman natural entities…‖ (177). in concordance with his assertion, callicott writes on lynn white‘s position ―what we do about ecology [that is, natural environment] depends on our ideas of man-nature relationship. more science and more technology are not going to get us out of the present ecological crisis until we find a new religion, or rethink our old one‖ (120). 2. environmental ethics environmental ethics as a concept is derived from two words: environment and ethics. environment derived from the french word, ―enviromer‖ meaning to ―encircle or surround‖, thus, it can be defined as (1) the circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or group of organisms… (cunnigham et al.16). it can be referred to as the natural compositions of an organism which includes, water, soil, air, land, etc. on the other hand, ethics is defined as the branch of philosophy that deals with the standard of right or wrong, good or bad, justice, fairness. ekwutosi citing consalves conception of ethics writes, ―ethics grows out of life-situation in which we are confronted with some sort of perplexity or doubt about what is the right thing to do or the best course to follow…‖ aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 (1). thus, environmental ethics deals with the application of ethical principles in man‘s relation with the environment. it is concerned with the moral attitudes that guide man‘s relationship with the environment. baird callicott, a philosopher of environmental ethics opines that ―environmental ethics has emerged as a new sub-discipline of moral philosophy…. environmental ethics may be understood to be but one among several new of applied philosophies‖ (116). on his clarification and distinction of environmental ethics from other new applied philosophies, rolston avers that; environmental ethics is more radical in applying ethics outside the sector of human interests. contemporary ethics has been concerned to be inclusive: the poor as well as the rich, women as well as man, future generations as well as the present. environment ethics is even more inclusive: whales slaughtered, wolves extirpated, whooping cranes and their habitats disrupted, ancient forest cut, earth threatened by global warming. these are ethical questions intrinsically, owing to values destroyed in nature, as well as instrumentally, owing to human resources jeopardized. humans need to include nature in their ethics, humans need to include themselves in nature (518). rolston‘s argument is that environmental ethics is often regarded as an applied ethics, but there seems to be a sort of difference between the two. in applied ethics, the traditional and metaphysical ethical theories are applied say, to medicine, business, work, genetic engineering and professional ethics. on the contrary, rolston argues that ―environmental ethics begins with the assumption that traditional metaphysics and moral theory are more at the root of environmental problems than the tools for their solution‖ (115). thereby stating that environmental ethics is a kind of anti-applied ethics, in the sense that, it refutes the principles of traditional ethics in addressing the environmental abuses. environmental ethics transcend the common application of ethical principles; it is an exploration of alternative ethical principles that can adequately address the environmental issues. richard sylvan arguing in line with rolston posits that, ―it is increasingly said that civilization, western civilization at least, stands in need of a new ethic… setting out people‘s relations to the natural environment‖ (12). the western conception of ethics has been human centered, it only dictates human to human relation, the human person is both the subject and object of the western ethics. subsequently, giving the new development or using charles darwin terminology, evolution, human being has discovered the need to extend moral relation to other nonhuman species, hence the beginning of environmental ethics. nnamani in his explication on environmental ethics opines that, ―environmental ethics begins with two basic assumptions: firstly, that human behavior towards the natural world should be governed by moral norms, and secondly, that we are charged with some nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … responsibilities towards nature‖ (393). rolston points out that ―environmental ethics starts with human concern for a quality environment, and some think this shapes the ethic from start to finish.‖ (517). thus, environmental ethic arises from human‘s concern to conserve and preserve the environment from the imminent environmental crisis that is gaining ground in the world. human beings must ensure a sustainable environment for a healthy living. environmental ethics is a branch of environmental philosophy that deals with moral relation of human species to nonhuman species. it is an extension of ethical cum moral consideration to animals, plants, soils, rocks, etc. jardins puts this rightly, environmental issues are not primarily political matters, but ethical affairs, they raise fundamental questions about ethics and philosophy‖ (4), nnamani in addition to what jardins has said, avers that ―environmental ethics raises questions about the place of human beings among other living organisms and about their relationship to nature and environment‖ (393). nnamani in his essay ―environmental ethics,‖ set forth to provide a philosophical ground of environmental ethics, he argues that environmental ethics can be a type of descriptive, normative and philosophical ethics. as a descriptive ethics, environmental ethics describes and summarizes ethical belief that helps us to understand the complexity of environmental challenges; as a normative ethics, environmental ethics makes ethical judgment and evaluations of environmental issues, and appeals to some standard or norm of ethical behavior; as a philosophical ethics, environmental ethics examines values in conflict and the competing reasons that underlie the conflict, in order to be able to evaluate normative judgment and ensure suitable environmental decisions and policies (394). however, environmental ethics is of recent origin, though many ancient philosophers have said something about the environment or nature, but it was from the humanistic point of view. richard sylvan was right at stating that-: ―it is not of course that old and prevailing ethics do not deal with nature; they do, and on the prevailing view man is free to deal with nature as he pleases, i.e, his relations with nature, insofar at least as they do not affect others, are not subject to moral censure‖ (12). serious academic inquiries into environmental ethics started in the 1970s. during this period a fervent awareness grew among scholars on the need to rethink human‘s relationship with the environment. on the first world earth day in 1970, environmentalists started urging philosophers, who were involved in the environmental discussion to proffer a solution to the imminent environmental crisis by formulating an environmental ethics. there were three papers that really inspired the desire for an environmental ethics; an essay in aldo leopold‘s a sand county almanac, ‗the land ethic‘ (1949), where leopold explicitly avers that the root of environmental crisis is philosophical. the second paper is lynn white‘s ‗the historical roots of our ecological crisis (1967) and thirdly, garett hardin‘s ‗the tragedy of the commons‘ (1968). these papers were influential in the environmental discussion of the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 1970s. subsequently, many philosophers took interest in the enquiry to save the planet from environmental crisis and possible extinction. callicott writing on the existence and establishment of environmental ethic within the philosophical circle, states explicitly; in 1973, with the publication of three seminal papers, environmental ethics made its formal debut on the staid and conservative stage of professional philosophy. that spring, the young australian philosopher peter singer published ―animal liberation‖ in the new york review of books. that summer, ―the shallow and the deep, long range ecology movement: a summary‖ by distinguished norwegian philosopher and mountaineer arne naess appeared in the international philosophy journal, inquiry. that fall, another young australian philosopher, richard sylvan (then routley), addressed his colleagues at the fifteenth world congress of philosophy in varna, bulgaria, with a question: ―is there a need for a new, an environmental, ethic‖ (―environmental philosophy, from animal rights to radical ecology‖ 3) 3. theories of environmental ethics in the bid to formulate an environmental ethics that can suitably address the environmental challenges, nnamani observes; the true nature of these norms and responsibility gave rise to two conflicting theories of environmental ethics: philosophers who hold that we owe responsibilities directly to other human beings and merely indirectly to the non-human part of the natural environment. in other words, nonhuman parts of the natural environment deserve man‘s moral consideration only insofar as they serve humanity interest. the second camp is the philosophers that hold that we owe direct responsibility to the whole universeplants, animals, species, and ecosystem. in this case, every natural object and the ecosystem have moral standing in their own right (393). consequently, the first camp is the anthropocentric philosophers that advocate for the human centered ethics, while the second camp is the non anthropocentric philosophers that clamour for the intrinsic value of the whole ecosystem. the non anthropocentric philosophers are further divided into two: the biocentric philosophers, the ecocentric philosophers. but due to the scope of this study, we shall only examine anthropocentric environmental ethics and ecocentric environmental ethics. nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … 4. anthropocentric environmental ethics anthropocentric environmental ethics is the branch of environmental ethics that is human centered. the word, anthropocentric, is derived from the greeks words, ‗anthropos‘ – humanand ‗kentron‘ –centeredthus, it is the idea that human beings are the most significant species on the ecosystem in the sense that they are considered to have a moral status or value higher than that of other animals. anthropocentrism emphasizes on the superiority of human beings over nonhuman species, and these nonhuman species are valued through the lens or perspective of human. in other words, human beings are assigned higher intrinsic value while nonhuman species are accorded instrumental value. anthropocentrism evaluates the behavior of human towards nature on the sole basis of how it affects human beings. human interests become the determinant factor in the conservation of the environment. the only reason for conserving the environment is that not doing so can harm the human beings, otherwise humans have no reason to conserve the environment. in order to comprehend this better, reference would be made to the scenario painted by richard routley, which he called the last man example, ―the last man (or person) surviving the collapse of the world system lays about him, eliminating, as far as he can, every living thing, animal or plant…what he does is permissible according to basic chauvinism‖ (16). routley‘s argument is that the last man behaves in an anthropocentric mannerism, he was eliminating every living thing, animal or plant because they do not have value, apart from serving the interest of man. though routley was not in support of such environmental value, ―one does not have to be committed to esoteric values to regard mr. last man as behaving badly‖ (16). the proponents of anthropocentrism posit that, every instance of value originates in a contribution to human values and that all elements of nature can, at most have value instrumental to the satisfaction of human interests. this point is made clear in the assertion, ―anthropocentrism views humans as the centre of ethical concern, while the environment is often seen as a usable resource, there for our personal exploitation,‖ (nuigalway.ie) underlying this position is the argument that values cannot exist without a valuer. the nonhuman species cannot be valued by and for itself because in the absent of man, they seem to possess no worth at all. it can be argued that the proponents of this view got their inspiration from classical philosophers. thus, anthropocentric view of environment can be traced down to the ancient philosophers. spinoza writing on the early conception of man notes; …they look on all things of nature as means to their own advantage…they could not believe them to be self-created, but on the analogy of the means which they are accustomed to produce for themselves, they were bound to conclude that there were some governor or governors of nature, endowed with human freedom, who have attended to all their needs and made aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 everything for their use….thus it was that this misconception developed into superstition and became deep-rooted in the minds of men (qtd in spinoza 164 ). man has always see nature as an instrument of manipulation and use, nature has no function except to satisfy the human race. aristotle once affirmed, ―nature has made all things specifically for the sake of man.‖ (bk 1, ch 8) this anthropocentric view of aristotle was followed by his medieval student thomas aquinas, who following the line of his master argues that nonhuman animals are ordered to man‘s use. thomas aquinas contributing to the anthropocentric conception puts it, ―hereby is refuted the error of those who said it is sinful for man to kill dumb animals: for by divine providence they are intended for man‘s use in the natural order‖ (112). in other words, human beings have right to subjugate other beings below on the hierarchy, because these beings are meant for human‘s consumption and usage. another radical philosopher who vehemently espoused anthropocentrism is francis bacon. carol merchant, a professor of environmental history, philosophy and ethics in the university of california, writing on bacon‘s contribution to the death of nature, describes in bacon words; [t] he new man of science must not think that the ―inquisition of nature is in any part interdicted or forbidden.‖ nature must be ―bound into service‖ and made a ―slave‖ put ―in constraint‖ and ―molded‖ by the mechanical arts. the ―searchers and spies of nature‖ are to discover her plots and secrets‖ (qtd in merchant 272). bacon from his statement is advocating for the exploitation and control of nature for human benefits. he went further to claim that knowledge is the ability to command nature, to penetrate into the inner and further recesses of nature, in order to discover the secrets of nature, ―there is therefore much ground for hoping that there are still laid up in the womb of nature many secrets of excellent use having no affinity or parallelism with anything that is now known… (qtd in merchant 273). bacon raised a call to dominate nature and exploit the natural environment for the good of the entire human race. though bacon is not an environmental philosopher, but his view greatly influenced man‘s conception of nature, merchant puts this succinctly, ―human dominion over nature, an integral element of the baconian program, was to be achieved through the experimental ―disclosure of nature‘s secrets.‖ seventeenth-century scientists, reinforcing aggressive attitudes toward nature, spoke out in favor of ―mastering‖ and ―managing‖ the earth (merchant 275). thus, it can be argued that human anthropocentric conception of nature stemmed from baconian program of dominating nature, such that man sees nature as a commodity to be used. nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … paul taylor writing on the distinction between anthropocentric environmental theory and the life centered theory, observers critically the nature of anthropocentric values; according to the latter, human actions affecting the natural environment and its nonhuman inhabitants are right (or wrong) by either two criteria: they have consequences which are favourable (or unfavourable) to human well-being, or they are consistent (or inconsistent) with the system of norms that protect and implement human rights. from this human centered standpoint it is human and only humans that all duties are ultimately owned. we may have responsibilities with regard to the natural ecosystems and biotic communities of our planet, but these responsibilities are in every case based on the contingent fact that our treatment of those ecosystems and communities of life can further the realization of human values and/or human rights. we have no obligation to promote or protect the good of nonhuman living things, independently of this contingent fact (198). 5. ecocentric environmental ethical theory ecocentric environmental ethic deals with the argument for the intrinsic value of the whole ecosystem, it employs the insights derived from ecological studies to advocate for value within ecological entities, processes and relationships. the tenet of ecocentrism is that we cannot adequately understand the value of an individual organism, unless we discover the value in the interconnected relationships that exist within the ecosystem. ―the world is an intrinsically dynamic, interconnected web of relations in which there are no absolutely discrete entities and no absolute dividing lines between the living and non living, the animate and the inanimate, or human and the nonhuman‖ (eckersely 49). thus, the seeming disparity between human and nonhuman stemmed from the traditional anthropocentric conception of nature. it is on this view that the ecocentrism rejects traditional ethical theories, arguing that they are insufficient and inadequate in addressing the environmental challenges. the major argument advanced by the proponents of ecocentrism is that value lies in the processes as well as in products; to value individuals among the fauna and flora and not the evolutionary and ecological processes is like valuing the eggs that the golden goose produces more than the goose able to produce them. it will be a mistake to value the goose only instrumentally. a goose that lays golden eggs is systemically valuable. how much is an ecosystem that generates myriads of species or even, as we soon see, an earth that produces billions of species, ourselves included (rolston iii 524). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 the position of ecocentrism was first advocated by aldo leopold in his highly influential essay "the land ethic", leopold begins his essay explicating the moral evolution over the millennia. according to him, the earliest notions of morality regulated conduct between individuals, as reflected in the ten commandments. later notions regulated conduct between an individual and society, as reflected in the golden rule. leopold argues that we are on the verge of a new advancement in morality which regulates conduct between humans and the environment, which he calls the land ethic. for all three of these phases in the evolution of ethics, the main premise of morality is that the individual is a member of a community of interdependent parts. for leopold, "the land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land‖ (262). this involves a radical paradigm shift in how humans perceive themselves in relation to the environment. originally we saw ourselves as conquerors of the land. now we need to see ourselves as members of a community which also includes the land. the role of conqueror is self-defeating, for it assumes that the conqueror knows all. yet, clearly, we do not know all of the inner complexities of the environment. leopold illustrates this by noting how human history has been altered by specific changes we have imposed on the environment. according to stan rowei, writing on the significant nature of the ecosystem, and its integrated nature, which demand respect for it, writes, [t] he ecocentric argument is grounded in the belief that compared to the undoubted importance of the human part, the whole ecosphere is even more significant and consequential: more inclusive, more complex, more integrated, more creative, more beautiful, more mysterious, and order than time. the environment that anthropocentrism misperceives as materials designed to be used exclusively by humans, to serve the needs of humanity, is in profoundest sense humanity‘s source and support:. econcentrism goes beyond biocentrism with its fixation on organisms, for in the ecocentric view, people are inseparable from the organic/inorganic nature that encapsulates them. they are particles and waves, body and spirit in the context of earth‘s ambient energy (106-107). j. baird callicot in his criticism of the western ethics and its inadequacies for protecting the environment envisions a new ethic that will incorporate the intrinsic value of the environment. this new ethic advocates for the intrinsic value of the environment which he refer to as ecocentrism. the environment is understood in terms of a complicated web of relations, where different organisms interact and depends on the health of the ecosystem for their survival. thus, it becomes paramount that man should adopt an ethic that will respect the place of other nonhuman species, because just like humans, they are part of the ecosystem. ―ethics is to be reformed by moving away from a strict concentration on nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … humans and their relations to include the nonhuman‖ (mcdonald 13). in other to set out the foundation of this new ethic, callicott made recourse to the land ethic of aldo leopold, he argues that; the land ethic, founded upon an ecological model of nature emphasizing the contributing roles played by various species in the economy of nature, abandons the ―higher/lower‖ ontological and axiological schema in favour of a functional system of value. the land ethic... is inclined to establish value distinctions not on the basis of higher and lower orders of being, but on the basis of the importance of organisms, minerals, and so on to the biotic community (qtd in mcdonald 16). similar to the earlier postulation at the beginning of this section, ecocentrism was championed by aldo leopold, but callicott established the philosophical foundation for the acceptance of the land ethic in the philosophical circle. the land ethic is grounded on the intrinsic value of the ecosystem, the respect for nonhuman species. this ethic was necessitated by the human degradation of the environment, the exploitation of mineral resources, which to a great extent poses threat to human life and whole ecosystem as well. thus, the need arose as to the formulation of an ethic that can adequately address the human relation to the environment. in response to this, callicott point out that, ―an adequate value theory for non-anthropocentric environmental ethics must provide for the intrinsic value of both individual organisms and a hierarchy of super-organismic entities populations, species, biocoenoses, biomes, and the biosphere‖ (qtd in mcdonald 17). the assumption that the ecosystem poses intrinsic value implies that the whole species within the ecosystem also possesses intrinsic value and therefore equal. paul taylor argues to the contrary, that there is difference between human and nonhuman species, in his words, he writes: ―we do not deny the differences between ourselves and other species, but we keep in the forefront of our consciousness the fact that in relation to our planet‘s natural ecosystems we are but one species population among many (207). thus, human has higher degree of sentience than the nonhuman species but we must realized that we are part of an interdependent system, and must coexist with other species, ―this is the fact that the well-being of humans is dependent upon the ecological soundness and health of many plants and animal communities, while their soundness and health does not in the least depend upon the human well-being‖ (taylor 208). 6. conclusion the moral consideration of nonhuman species cannot be neglected at this age because studies have proven that the ecosystem is interrelated and abuse of one member of the ecosystem invariably results to the dysfunction of the entire ecosystem. the discussion on the primacy of the human species on other nonhuman species has provided justification on aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 the constant abuse of the environment. however, this study is a call to change the perception of human relation with the environment. nature has inherent value besides its benefit to human. thus, in exploration of nature, human beings should respect the intrinsic value of other members of the ecosystem. development, technology, industrialization and civilization are necessary element of human species but ecocentric environmental ethics argues for a moderation of these activities in order to curb extreme extinction of some of these nonhuman species. it must be noted the upholding the intrinsic value of the environmental is indirectly beneficial to human beings; if the other nonhuman species would go into extinction, then, human would have little or no resources to explore. nwokoye an assessment of the theory of environmental … references aquinas, thomas. (1975). summa contra gentiles, translated by v.j. bourke, (london: university of notre dame press, bk.3, part 2, ch.112 aristotle,( 1948).politics translated e. barker, oxford: oxford university press, bk.1, ch.8 callicott, b.j. (1997).―the challenge of a world environmental ethics,‖ american journal of theology and philosophy, vol.18, no.1. ---. ―conceptual resources for environmental ethics in asian traditions of thought: a propaedeutic,‖ (1987). philosophy east and west, vol. 37, no.2, ―environmental ethics,‖ retrieved from www.nuigalway.ie/cobra/links/guides/environmental ethics.html accessed on 28th august, 2020.hawaii: university of hawaii press. ---. ―how environmental ethical theory may be put into practice,‖ (1996).ethics and the environment, vol.1no.1. ---. ―introduction‖ in m. zimmernam, (general ed), b. j. callicott, sessions george, warren karen j, clark john. (assoc, eds.) (1993).environmental philosophy, from animal rights to radical ecology, new jersey: prentice hall. cunnigham, w. p., cunningham m., saigo, b. (2005).environmental science: a global concern, 8 ed. new york: mcgraw-hill companies. eckersely, r. (1992). ―ecocentrism explained and defended,‖ environmentalism and political theory, london: ucl press. ---. r. environmentalism and political theory, london: ucl press, 1992. ekwutosi, m.c.(2006).basic issues in ethics, onitsha: rex charles & patrick ltd, booksmith house, leopold, a. (1949).a sand county almanac, new york: oxford university press, manson, n. (2000). ―anthropocentrism and the design argument‖, in religious studies vol.36, quoted baruch spinoza, in the ethics and selected letters, samuel shirley (transl), and seymour fadman(ed). united kingdom: cambridge university press. mc donald, h.p. (2004). ―john dewey and environmental philosophy‖ albany: state university of new york, mcharg, (1969). ―design with nature,‖ new york: doubleday and company inc. merchant, c. (1993). ―the death of nature‖. in zimmernam michael, (general ed), callicott, baird j., sessions george, warren karen j, clark john. (assoc, eds.) environmental philosophy, from animal rights to radical ecology., new jersey: prentice hall. nnamani, a.g. (2005). ―ethics of the environment,‖ in p. iroegbu and a. echekwube (eds.),kpim of morality ethics: general, special and professional, nigeria: heinemann educational books. po-keung, i. (1987). ―taoism and the foundations of environmental ethics,‖ in j. baird callicott’s conceptual resources for environmental ethics in asian traditions of thought: a propaedeatic university of hawai‘i press, http://www.nuigalway.ie/cobra/links/guides/environmental-ethics.html http://www.nuigalway.ie/cobra/links/guides/environmental-ethics.html aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 rolston 111, h. (2003) ―environmental ethics‖, in nicholas bunnin and e.p. tsui-james, (eds.), the blackwell companion to philosophy, 2nd ed., oxford: blackwell publishing. rowe, stan j. (2020).―ecocentrism: the chord that harmonizes humans and earth.‖ (the trumpter, 1994) p.106-107 retrieved from http://.www.ecospherics.net/pages/ roweecocenrism.html. accessed on 14 th july, 2020. sylvan, r. (1993). ―is there a need for a new, an environmental ethic?‖ in zimmernam michael, (general ed), callicott, baird j., sessions george, warren karen j, clark john. (assoc, eds.) environmental philosophy, from animal rights to radical ecology., new jersey: prentice hall. taylor, p. (2020).―the ethics of respect for nature‖. retrieved from www.unweitethikk.at on 14th july, united nation development report (undp), niger-delta development human report,abuja;un house, (2006). http://.www.ecospherics.net/pages/%20roweecocenrism.html http://.www.ecospherics.net/pages/%20roweecocenrism.html http://www.unweitethikk.at/ aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 abstract this paper examines the nexus between epistemology and human affairs. epistemology as a philosophical inquiry is seen as a discipline detached from the practical affairs of life. this misconception is predicated on the abstract nature of its subject matter and the theoretical characterization of its approach. against this backdrop, the paper analyses the normative nature of epistemology. it shows how epistemology develops criteria for assessing our knowledge claims and by extension our decision making processes. on the basis of this, the paper outlines the place of epistemology in human affairs. keywords: epistemology, knowledge, philosophy and human affairs. introduction in the public domain, epistemology is an abstract, abstruse and fuzzy philosophical inquiry that offers nothing but unnecessary hair splitting discourse detached from practical affairs of life. this explains why ozumba (2013) notes that "epistemology is not a layman's job and as such must be couched to reflect the sophistication of the ivory tower laced with jargons that are meaningful to the initiates"(p.33). this theoretically exclusive description of epistemology is a fallout of the popular but unfortunate conception of philosophy as a speculative discipline with no tincture of connection to practical life. in line with this reasoning, many definitions of philosophy depict it as a discipline that is not really concerned with the factual accuracy of statements about the world than with their meanings. it is therefore presented as an inquiry on the analysis and description of concepts with which we make meaning of the world around us. hence, whenever the word 'philosophy' is mentioned, it conjures up the image of something abstruse and fuzzy devoid of any practical relevance to human affairs. this conception of philosophy is further strengthened by the fact that philosophy has become professionalized to the extent that philosophers appears to have been detached from practical concerns of life. however, a keen observation of philosophical discourse shows that the emergence and sustenance of philosophical inquiry is dependent on the contradictions of life. this argument is succinctly captured by ibrahim (2019) when he writes that: philosophical ideas and problems are inspired, generated and sustained by the ever-evolving contradictions of human life. these contradictions in human existence provide the raw materials for philosophical discourse...if philosophy turns away from the practical concerns of human life, it is tantamount to detaching from its source of life…. detaching philosophical subject matters from practical concerns of everyday life is simply epistemology and human affairs adekunle a. ibrahim, ph.d department of philosophy university of uyo, uyo. 11 philosophy's readiness for extinction (p.20). from the above, it is clear that if philosophy is to remain relevant to humanity, it must as a matter of urgency begin to reconnect itself to its source of life, that is, the practical concerns of life. in fact, the failure of philosophy to address practical concerns of life is not only suicidal to philosophy, but also inimical to the sanity of human rationality. it is at this point that the place of epistemology in human affairs becomes discernible. this is because the concept of rationality is an epistemological problem. in a bid to ascertain the sanity of human rationality, it is imperative to interrogate the nature, structure and justification of human knowledge. this is the domain of epistemology. in view of this, it is highly important to begin to decode the “high-quality jargon” of epistemological discourse in order to make meaning to others outside the market place of philosophy. hence, this paper sets out to explore the place of epistemology in human affairs. to achieve this objective, the paper analyses the terms epistemology and human affairs. it examines the stages of knowing in human life. it showcases how epistemological teachings help in developing criteria for assessing our knowledge claims. finally, it outlines the importance of epistemology to human affairs. what is epistemology? etymologically, the word epistemology is a derivative of the fusion of two greek words episteme which means knowledge or understanding and logos meaning “theory of or rational discourse”. hence, epistemology means the theory of knowledge or rational discourse on knowledge. in this sense, epistemology is simply a meta-knowledge, that is, knowledge taking a critical look at itself in order to justify itself. for this reason, ojong and ibrahim (2013) see epistemology as the philosophical discipline that “investigates the process of human cognition and all the problems associated with its acquisition and justification” (p.39). by so doing, epistemology interrogates the nature, origin, scope, sources, validity and structure of human knowledge. this means that epistemology is the philosophical analysis of the foundations of our knowledge claims as it examines the means by which our knowledge is acquired, the extent of our knowledge, and the standards or criteria by which we can judge the reliability of knowledge claims. in its bid to ascertain the status of our cognitive inquiries, epistemology seeks to unravel questions such as “what is knowledge?” “what differentiate knowledge from mere opinion?” “how do we know that we know?” “what are the sources of our knowledge?” “how do we justify the trustfulness of our ideas?” “can we know with absolute certainty?” “are we capable of knowing outside the frame of our experience?” a critical look at the above reveals the normative nature of epistemology. in view of the fact that human beings hold and express a wide range of opinions on variety of issues, and the possibility of thinking we know based on these opinions when in reality we do not know. it becomes imperative to have a sort of standards or criteria for determining the epistemic worth of our ideas or beliefs. epistemology fulfills this role by providing the frameworks within which our claims to knowledge are assessed. this normative function of epistemology is fundamental in the sense that our actions in most cases are determined by the ideas we have or the beliefs we uphold. and, if our actions are to be justified, the beliefs and ideas that condition them must necessarily be justified. for this, reason, 12 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june epistemology as a normative discipline aims at providing standards or criteria for the assessment of our beliefs and ideas. this explains why chaffee (2009) defines epistemology as “the area of study devoted to the questions of how to develop informed beliefs, construct knowledge and discover truth” (p.437). that, epistemology helps us in the acquisition of true-beliefs and the avoidance of false-beliefs. in practical terms, epistemology, with its cognitive interrogations, aims at what crumley (2009) describes as "prudential goals" (p.16) that is, the capacity to make decisions in a timely fashion. thus, through its pernicious and tenacious scrutiny of the foundations of knowledge, epistemology builds in us an epistemic map with which we survey the confusing terrain of our world in order to properly guide our actions. what is human affairs? the expression “human affairs” is made up of two principal words. human, on the one hand refers to mortal anthropoid beings while affairs on the other hand means engagements, activities, relationships, or interactions. in this sense, human affairs refers to human or mortal interactions or relationships. it refers to the engagements or activities of humans in the pursuit of their survival. so, when we talk about human affairs we are simply referring to interactions as a fact of human existence. human existence, according to ozumba (2003) refers to man as an existential being faced daily with enormous challenges from his environment, his health, his spiritual well-being, relationship with others, economic survival, socio-political needs, educational, moral, cultural and other needs. in view of the fact that humanity is faced with diverse existential challenges, human affairs invariably becomes multi-faceted as it simply reflects the activities of man on a daily basis (p.33). as such, there are domestic affairs, family affairs, business affair, environmental affairs, financial affairs, economic affairs, political affairs, religious affairs, legal affairs, public affairs, international affairs, educational affairs and so on. epistemology and the stages of knowing in human life in the proceeding part of this discourse, an attempt was made to clarify the normative status of epistemology. epistemology was seen as an aspect of philosophical study devoted to the development of normative standards or criteria for what is to count as knowledge, truth and belief. this is said to be the objective of its examination of the nature, sources, structure and validity of knowledge. a critical look at the landscape of epistemological discourse reveals that the main task of epistemology centers on creating the awareness of the need to separate genuine knowledge from belief or mere opinion. this is a fundamental necessity in human existence as it helps us to figure out things in the confusing terrain of existence. in everyday life, becoming aware of the true nature of knowledge and how it affects us emotionally and behaviourally is critical to achieving personal development and the satisfaction of everyday basic necessities. this is because our actions in daily life are usually conditioned within the purview of the stage of knowing we are at a given moment on a specific or area of experience. an individual may be at different stages of knowing simultaneously, depending on the subject or area of experience. for example, a person may be at an advanced stage in one area of life (academic work) but at a less sophisticated stage in another area (romantic relationship or conception of morality). in 13 adekunle a. ibrahim epistemology and human affairs general, however, people tend to operate predominantly within one stage in most areas of their lives. it is at this point that the engagement in epistemological discourse removes the veil of ignorance and propels us towards self-epistemic assessment. in this sense, epistemology develops in us the capacity for critical thinking and existential prudence. however, the road to becoming a critical thinker is a challenging epistemic journey that involves passing through different stages of knowing in order to achieve an effective understanding of the world. these stages, ranging from simple to complex, characterize people's thinking and the way they understand their world. a critical thinker is a person who has progressed through all the stages of knowing to achieve a sophisticated understanding of the nature of knowledge. thus, in epistemology, we can deduce three basic stages of knowing in human life: naive, confused and critical. these are discussed here under chaffee's condensed version of william perry's developmental model of human thought. in his book thinking critically. chaffee (2009) identifies the three stages of knowing as follows: stage 1: the garden of eden stage 2: anything goes stage 3: thinking critically (p.267). in stage 1, that is, the garden of eden, our stage of knowing is within the framework of seeing the world in black and white, right and wrong, people in this stage of thinking develop their belief system based on what the “authorities” tell them. just like in the biblical garden of eden, knowledge at this stage is absolute, unchanging, and in the sole possession of authorities. due to their state of epistemic nativity, ordinary people can never determine the truth for themselves, they must rely on the experts. they are expected to learn and accept information from authorities. if someone disagree with what they have been told by the authorities, then, that person must be wrong. there is now possibility of compromise or negotiation. this is the case whenever a child insists that his/her teacher in school “aunty or uncle” is right in any subject-matter on which the parents may have a contrary opinion. in affirmation of the authority of the teacher, the child retorts” my aunty says….” in epistemology, the knowledge derived from this stage of epistemic naivety is referred to as authoritative knowledge. this is the type of knowledge acquired neither on the nature of the object of knowledge nor on the insight of the subject of knowledge but on the basis of someone else's authority. that is, it is an established knowledge which we accept without doubt simply because we feel there is no need to do so as they are validated by the claims of authorities in the field in question. (ibrahim, 2021, p.45). however, in epistemological discourse, the danger of this stage of knowing is exposed as it is argued that authorities are not always right and we may be mistaken or misled when we take their views for granted. furthermore, when authorities disagree, the novices become epistemologically disillusioned and realise that they cannot simply rely on authorities to tell them what to think and believe. they have to think through which authority to accept by explaining why they choose to believe one authority over another. as soon as this happens, the garden of eden stage of knowing elapses and the stage of extreme open mindedness enthroned. just as adam and eve could not go back to blind, uncritical acceptance of authority once they had tasted the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and 14 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june evil. in stage 2, that is, the stage of anything goes, after the rejection of dogmatic and authoritarian framework of stage 1, the mind becomes open to any idea that comes its way. "the reasoning is that if authorities are not infallible and we can't trust their expertise, then, no one point of view is ultimately any better than any other" (chaffee, 2009, p.169). as such, anything goes! in epistemology, this is known as the state of relativism: the view that truth is relative to any individual or situation, and there is no standard we can use to decide which beliefs make most sense. for instance, if a piece of land is shown to three different persons say igbo, yoruba and hausa to assess what the land may be used for. the igbo man may think of citing a ware house or shops, the yoruba man may think of housing accommodation while the hausa man may think of grassing for livestocks. in stage 2 thinking, there is no way to evaluate this or any other investment preferences; they are simply “matters of taste” that may be influenced by culture, religion, education, society, historical contexts and so on. however, in the face of the open-minded attitude of anything goes in stage 2 thinking, the reality is that we are often not so tolerant. we do have at the base of our thinking some unwritten; perhaps unnoticed ground norms that guides our choices and preferences unconsciously. this is because some pattern of thinking do influence or determine our sense of judgement as we often condemn or praise beliefs and actions we come by. this shows that at some points we are still able to figure out that the anything goes attitude leads to absurdity as it runs contrary to our deeply felt conviction that some beliefs are better than other beliefs. this is a fallout of the epistemological teaching that beliefs are of two types: basic (informed beliefs) and nonbasic (uninformed beliefs). in his article “the epistemology of everyday life” ibrahim (2017) delineates the difference between basic and non-basic beliefs to be that basic beliefs are supported by compelling reasons and it would be absurd to reject them. for instance, the proposition “only women can give birth to babies” is a basic belief that its rejection stands questionable. on the contrary, non-basic beliefs are not supported by compelling reasons as their support is not so solid (p.127). for instance, the proposition” i believe that aliens have visited the earth” is a non-basic belief because its' support is weak and cannot be clearly established. the moment we are capable of engaging in this analysis, it is obvious that the coast is clear for an advancement into the next stage of knowing. in stage 3, that is, the critical thinking stage, the two opposing perspectives of knowing in stage 1 and 2 find their synthesis. this is because critical thinking “consists of making informed, evaluative judgements about claims and arguments. it is characterised by being fair and open-minded; active and informed; sceptical and independent” (butterworth & thwaites, 2013, p.12). the defining features of this stage of knowing are: analysis, evaluation and further argument. when people arrive at this stage of knowing, they recognise that some viewpoints are better than others, not simply because authorities say so but because there are compelling reasons to support these viewpoints. at the same time, people in this stage are open-minded toward other viewpoints, especially those that disagree with theirs. they recognize that there are often a number of legitimate perspectives on complex issues, and they accept the validity of these perspectives to the extent that they are supported by persuasive reasons and evidence. this is simply the cultivation of the virtue of epistemic humility which strengthens one to recognise one's 15 adekunle a. ibrahim epistemology and human affairs biases, one's prejudices, the limitations of one's viewpoint, and the extent of one's ignorance. it is a rejection of epistemic arrogance which involves a lack of consciousness of the limits of one's knowledge, with little or no insight into self-deception or into the limitations of one's point of view. epistemologically arrogant people often fall prey to their own bias and prejudice, and frequently claim to know more than they actually know. these kind of people have no place in the critical stage of knowing as their attributes goes contrary to the dictates of critical thinking. the place of epistemology in human affairs human existence is a complex and cloudy phenomenon that requires the ability to figure out how things are and how to navigate one's way through its excruciating challenges. the need to figure out things in order to survive places an epistemic burden on man. this gives credence to aristotle's declaration that “all men by nature desire to know” (bartlett, 1992, p.27). knowledge, is therefore, a sine qua non to human survival. it is an existential imperative for man since it makes him feel at home in his habitat. as rescher (2003) puts it, “…the need for knowing one's way about, is one of the most fundamental demands of human condition" ( p.xvii). in a nutshell, knowledge is a non-negotiable condition of existence. this perhaps explains why contrary to god's admonition, man (adam & eve) decided to eat from the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. and from that moment onward, every man carries about with him a touchstone to distinguish between truth and falsehood, good and evil as well as right and wrong. this means that everyone, though may not be fully aware of it, has a theory of knowledge, that is, your own personal epistemology which enables you to develop beliefs and construct knowledge. however, it is not the case that people necessarily construct the most enlightened beliefs possible due to several factors such as prejudice, bias, uncritical acceptance of authority, peer pressure, religious affiliation, cultural influences and soon. it is therefore this obvious fact of human situation that necessitates the study of principles that guarantee the development of reasonable and coherent belief systems which ultimately transform into a theory of knowledge, that is, your own epistemology. in human life, becoming aware of the nature of knowledge and belief, and how these thought systems affect us is critical to achieving personal empowerment in the pursuit of basic existential needs. this is because our actions in relation to others are usually conditioned by what we think is right based on certain beliefs or convictions. these beliefs determine our interpretation of the world and ultimately the way we think we ought to behave. thus, our belief system becomes the mental map with which we guide our decision making in daily affairs. in our daily reasoning therefore, we do not determine if a conclusion is valid solely on the basis of the statements we are given. instead, we restructure the statements presented to us according to our interpretative lens (belief system) and then decide if a conclusion follows thereof. this means that we function within a sort of personal “epistemic logic” in which we utilise our personal beliefs about the world to formulate conclusions about related issues which ultimately determine our choice of actions in various affairs. the consequences of this choice of actions may be either positive or negative depending on the quality of the belief system that conditioned them in the first place. chaffee (2009) captures this point succinctly as follows: 16 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june in the same way that you use road maps to guide your destination, your belief system constitutes the “map” you use to inform your decisions. it your mental map of the world is reasonably accurate, then if will provide reliable guidance in helping you figure things out and make intelligent decisions. on the other hand, if your mental map is not accurate, then the results are likely to be unfortunate and even disastrous (p.437). in epistemology, our effort to guide the development of reasonably accurate beliefs is conceived as part of a larger quest to achieve knowledge and truth for the meaningfulness of human life. this is why epistemology as a philosophical discipline is devoted to the analysis of knowledge by exploring knowledge through critical reflection. by extension, it is the area of study that interrogates how to develop informed beliefs, construct knowledge, and discover truth for human survival. in view of the fundamental role belief systems play in our life, epistemology critically examine our beliefs in order to differentiate between what we really know and what we think we know. this is the point where epistemology becomes a critical requirement in the intellectual development of man. in this sense, epistemologists' critique of the possibility, and justification of human knowledge prepares us to confront the challenges of existential affairs. this fundamental role of epistemology in human affairs in well captured by blackburn (2012) when he highlights how public questions can give us urgent political and economic problems. according to him: when people ask, for instance, whether economics or psychoanalysis is a science, what they are really interested in is whether economic predictions or psychoanalytic interpretations of personality are soundly based. are they based on knowledge of how economies or psychologies work? or are they speculation and based on mere cobwebs of theory? these are not idle questions: they determine who get the highly paid jobs and consultancies, and where human efforts get spent. but without at least the glimmering of an epistemology a story about the structure of knowledge and its scope and limits they cannot be tackled (p. 43) the point being stressed in the above quotation is that public policies and expenditure are guided and determined by a critical scrutiny of the epistemic worth of respective disciplines. in this sense, epistemology provides the normative criteria for determining which discipline(s) deserves our attention and investment. in the same vein, courts may need to determine whether 'creationist science' is a science and that its theories therefore deserve airing in schools. this equally requires ascertaining whether there is anything like knowledge in the area of evolutionary history and orthodox biology. epistemology therefore contributes to the proper formulation of the curriculum as well as the selection and structuring of various domains of knowledge to be transmitted in schools. in general 17 adekunle a. ibrahim epistemology and human affairs terms, epistemology matters to human affairs because it propels our understanding of the structure and limits of knowledge towards effective decision making. in specific terms, the importance of epistemology to human affairs includes the fact that it: 1. makes us conscious and take charge of our belief forming processes. 2. guides us against epistemic deception as it helps us in differentiating between what we know from what we think we know. 3. helps us to cultivate the virtue of epistemic humility which involves having the consciousness of the limits of one's knowledge as well as acknowledging the epistemic peculiarities of others. 4. eliminates epistemic arrogance by making us tolerant to other people's views in the face of compelling facts, evidence and justifiability. 5. encourages epistemic empathy as it creates an awareness of the need to imaginatively put oneself in place of others so as to genuinely understand them. this involves developing the ability to accurately reconstruct the viewpoints and reasoning of others and to reason from premises, assumptions, and ideas other than one's own. 6. promotes intellectual perseverance which is the disposition to work one's way through intellectual complexities despite the frustration inherent in the task. 7. fosters intellectual autonomy which refers to internal motivation based on the ideal of thinking for oneself; haring self-authorship of one's beliefs, values, and way of thinking; not being dependent on others for direction and control of one's thinking. 8. builds intellectual courage of having a consciousness of the need to face and fairly address ideas, beliefs, or viewpoints toward which one has strong reservations and to which one has not given a serious consideration. this helps to eliminate intellectual cowardice which is the fear of ideas that do not conform to one's own views. 9. helps us to fight against absolute skepticism as life becomes meaningless where there is nothing to believe. 10. saves us from dogmatism as we are equipped to constantly examine our beliefs. 11. makes inter-subjectivity possible as it prepares us to see things in other people's perspective. 12. deepens our level of understanding both as an individual and as a society. 13. empowers us to build well thought out decision making processes by providing us with logic of relations. 14. enhances our moral consciousness as it provides us with better normative frameworks for understanding our moral choices. 15. boost our chances of survival as knowledge is an existential imperative. conclusion this paper began with a conceptual analysis of the terms: epistemology and human affairs. it then moved on to examine the nextus between epistemology and the stages of knowing in human life. this it achieved by exploring the insights of epistemological teachings on how we come to form beliefs and ideas at different intellectual stages of life. that is, diagnosing how we come to know in our daily life within the framework of the epistemological enterprise. it discusses the place of epistemology in human existence and highlights its importance to human affairs. thus, the paper anchors that the link between epistemology and human affairs on the need to 18 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june analyse, identify, develop the criteria and methodologies for determining what we know, how we know, why we know, with the ultimate aim of improving human existential condition. it shows that knowledge is an imperative for human survival and that epistemology provides the criteria for assessing our knowledge claims towards ensuring effective decision making processes. works cited bartlett, j.(1992) familiar quotations. boston: little brown. blackburn, s. (2012) what do we really know?: the big questions of philosophy. london: quercus. butterworth, j. & thwaites, g. (2013) thinking skills: critical thinking and problem solving. cambridge : cambridge university press. chaffee, j. (2009) thinking critically . u.s.a: heinle. crumley, j. s. (2009) an introduction to epistemology. broadview press. ezebuilo ,h.c. (2022), epistemology at a glance. awka: iprogressive press ibrahim, a. a. (2017) “the epistemology of everyday life” sapientia: journal of philosophy.. 8 (2), pp 125 130. ibrahim, a. a. (2020) essentials of epistemology. ibadan: hope publications. ibrahim, a. a. (2019) philosophy and employment prospects: a guide for philosophy undergraduates. ibadan: hope publications. ojong, k. a. & ibrahim a. a.(2011) fundamental problem of epistemology. calabar: jochrisam publishers. ozumba, g. o. (2013) “epistemology and human interests” in k. a. ojong & e. o. john (eds.) living issues in epistemology. uyo: el-johns publisher, pp 33 43. rescher, n. (2003) epistemology: an introduction to the theory of knowledge. new york: state university of new york press. 19 adekunle a. ibrahim epistemology and human affairs aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 108 abstract before w.v.o. quine came up with the idea of naturalizing epistemology, there were efforts by many philosophers to establish the fourth condition of knowledge. this search for a fourth condition was as a result of gettier's thought experiment, which pointed out the flaws in the traditional account of knowledge. however, quine's idea of naturalizing epistemology came after rene descartes and rudolf carnap were unable to succeed in their foundation program, a program that aimed to build a strong foundation in the search for the` edifice of knowledge. so, when the carnapian and the cartesian foundational program failed, quine called for epistemology to be naturalized. his point is since there is no notable success in the search for the fourth condition of knowledge and since the foundational program of descartes and carnap did not work out, and since there is some level of certainty and objectiveness in natural scientific methods, epistemology should be naturalized. he emphasized that the issues in the theory of knowledge can be solved if philosophers embrace the methods of the natural sciences. there are many questions surrounding quine's idea, for instance: we have the question of how a normative discipline like epistemology will become part of natural science, and why philosophers should shift their problems to the natural sciences when there are also unresolved issues in natural science, and many other questions. this work, therefore, examines naturalized epistemology to see the possibility of naturalizing epistemology and what comes of epistemology if it is naturalized. keywords: naturalized, epistemology, philosophy and knowledge introduction what is knowledge? how do i know that i know something? at what point can i conclude that i know something for certain? what are the conditions needed for one to know something? is objective knowledge possible? is universal truth attainable? these questions and hundreds of other questions have occupied my thoughts since childhood. the questions of knowledge are not new in philosophy, it has always been there, and even the early philosophers were deeply interested in figuring out the ultimate element of the globe but could not come to an agreement as to what the ultimate element of the world is. thereafter, there was also the era of the questions of the ability of the human mind to know any universal truth. this was the era of skepticism. the skeptics had doubt regarding the possibility of attaining any universal truth and this posed a an examination of w.v.o. quine's naturalized epistemology christopher, christian john department of philosophy university of uyo, uyo – nigeria 109 significant threat to the question of human knowledge. thereafter knowledge was generally defined as justified true belief. for a long time, knowledge was defined as justified-truebelief until gettier presented two thoughts experiments to show the problem in the traditional account of knowledge. gettier discovered that justification, truth and belief are all necessary conditions for knowledge but they are not enough, for him, there is need for a fourth condition. the discovery of flaws in the traditional account of knowledge birthed the search for the fourth condition of knowledge and there has been so many attempts by various philosophers to provide a suitable fourth condition of knowledge. for instance, we have the defeasibility theory, the causal theory, the reliability theory and so on. there was also the foundationalist program by rene descartes and rudolf carnap. foundationalism is the belief that certain fundamental beliefs, known as basic propositions, can be known with certainty through immediate, direct experience and do not require justification through inference. it is the view that knowledge and epistemic justification have a structure. so, willard van orman quine therefore argued that there are some level of certainty and objectivity in natural science, so for him rather than continue the endless search for another condition of knowledge epistemology should rather be naturalized. so that a proposition can be proven using the method of the natural sciences and philosophers will be able to have sufficient prove about a proposition. but this means, epistemology will become part of natural science. biographical sketch of w.v. o. quine willard van orman quine was born on june 25th, 1908 in akron, ohio. he attended the local high school where he pursued scientific courses, paying special attention to mathematics. in his autobiography, the time of my life (1985) he wrote that he had a passion for mathematics and philosophy but his problem was how to combine the two different fields. he later solved this problem as he advanced academically by focusing on the philosophy of mathematics. quine gained admission into oberlin college in 1926 and started studying mathematics and he pays attention to mathematical philosophy. in 1929, quine began working on his honors thesis. he applied to harvard university to do his graduate work because their philosophy department was then the strongest in mathematical philosophy and logic in the country. its faculty included alfred north whitehead one of the authors of principia mathematica. quine won a scholarship and with the help of it, he was able to do his masters's degree, and later on, he did his ph.d. in 1931, quine had what he described as his most dazzling exposure to greatness when russell came to lecture at harvard (2). russell was one of the most influential figures in quine's life, mainly through works like principia mathematica, introduction to mathematical philosophy, and so on. quine attended meetings of the vienna circle and he met some of the members of the vienna circle, members like herbert feigl, neurath, schlick, godel, hahn, and menger. quine describes his stay away from harvard as “the intellectually most rewarding months he has known” (6). quine returned to harvard in 1933 and was made a junior fellow of harvard's society of fellows and this freed him from teaching responsibilities for three years. b.f skinner aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june was also a member of the junior fellow during that time. that's why many scholars believe quine was influenced by skinner's behaviorism. during the second world war, quine served in the united states navy for more than three years and rose to the rank of lieutenant commander (orenstein, 7). after the second world war quine returned to harvard and was made a full professor in the department of philosophy, he thought there until 1978 when he retired from teaching work. quine wrote many works, some of his notable works are; mathematical logic, from a logical point of view, ontological relativity, and other essays just to mention a few. quine is popularly known for his rejection of the analytic-synthetic distinction and his advocacy for naturalism, physicalism, empiricism, holism, and extensions. quine's thoughts and writings touch on severalareas including logic, the philosophy of language, the philosophy of science, the philosophy of mind, epistemology, and so on. in 1969, he published his “epistemology naturalized” in which he advocated that epistemology should be studied along naturalistic lines. quine died on 25th december 2000. the philosophical background of quine's naturalized epistemology philosophers rarely philosophize in a vacuum. it is either they are trying to solve a problem or they are trying to ask or answer a question. this implies that every philosophy has a philosophical background. if this is the case, then quine's naturalized epistemology is not left out. by advocating for a naturalized version of epistemology quine was trying to respond to the question of objectivity in knowledge and at the same time, he was interested in solving the problems in epistemology. these questions and problems which quine was responding to form the philosophical backgrounds of naturalized epistemology. we shall now proceed to discuss the major ones. which are as follows: traditional epistemology one of the major problems in philosophy is the problem of stating the proper characteristics of the nature of knowledge. this problem arises as a result of an attempt to prove to the skeptics that objective knowledge is possible. plato in his dialogue titled theatetus defines knowledge as justified true belief. this definition is generally regarded as the traditional account of knowledge. thus, when we talk of traditional epistemology we are simply referring to the traditional account of knowledge. this “traditional account of knowledge was an account aimed at presenting a defense for the possibility of objective knowledge through the identification of the elements that constitute knowledge” (ojong and ibrahim, 126). the three major conditions in this account are; truth, belief, and justification. this implies that for us to know a given proposition that proposition must be true and we must believe in it then we must be justified in believing in it. thus; for mr. a to know a proposition (p), p must be true, mr. a must believe in p and mr. a must be justified in believing in p. let's use a thought experiment as an instance, assuming i am wondering if my friend is in his house then i meet john, john for no reason tells me that right now my friend is in his house and when i get to my friend's house he is truly in his house. now, looking at the above illustration, 110 christopher an examination of w.v.o. quine's naturalized epistemology it is true that my friend is in the house, and john also believes that my friend is in the house butcan john be said to know in this case? according to the traditional account of knowledge, john does not know. but when can john be said to have knowledge that my friend is in his house in this case? this is where justification comes in as the third condition of knowledge. for john to know he must have justifiable reasons to back up his true belief. however, in 1963 edmund gettier observed that there is a problem with the traditional account of knowledge so he presented a thought experiment to prove the inadequacy of the traditional conception of epistemology. gettier's aim “is to demonstrate the insufficiency of the conditions of knowledge provided by the traditional account” (ibrahim, 132). we shall now proceed to examine gettier's thought experiment against the traditional account of knowledge. the gettier problem for over 100 years, knowledge was seen as justified true belief until edmund gettier in 1963 published his famous essay titled “is justified true belief knowledge?” in which he presented two thought experiments to show there was a problem with the traditional account of knowledge. commenting on this, okeke writes that before gettier's essay “it was always taken for granted that knowledge is justified true belief….” (44). dancy on his part also have something to say about gettier's essay, for him, “it is important to note here that, gettier is not quarreling with any of the three clauses, he allows that they are individually necessary and argued that they need supplementing” (25). gettier's thought examples are as follows; suppose that smith and jones have applied for a certain job. and suppose that smith has strong evidence for the following conjunctive proposition: (d) jones is the man who will get the job, and jones has ten coins in his pocket. smith's evidence for (d) might be that the president of the company assured him that jones would in the end be selected, and that he, smith, had counted the coins in jones pocket ten minutes ago. proposition (d) entails: (e) the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket. let us suppose that smith sees the entailment from (d) to (e), and accepts (e) on the grounds of (d), for which he has strong evidence. in this case, smith is clearly justified in believing that (e) is true. (121). gettier brings his thought experiment to the crucial point (that crumbles the traditional account) when he implores us to suppose further that:unknown to smith, he himself, not jones, will get the job. and, also, unknown to smith, he himself has ten coins in his pocket. proposition (e) is then true; though proposition (d), from which smith inferred (e), is false. (121-122). 111 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june gettier goes ahead to conclude that; in our examples, then, all of the following are true: (i), (e) is true, (ii) smith believes that (e) is true, and (iii) smith is justified in believing that (e) is true. but it is equally clear that smith does not know that (e) is true; for (e) is true in virtue of the number of coins in smith's pocket, while smith does not know how many coins are in smith's pocket, and bases his belief in (e) on a count of the coins in jones's pocket, whom he falsely believes to be the man who will get the job (122-123). in gettier's example above, smith has a justified true belief yet he does not have knowledge because his knowledge of (e) seems to be a mere coincidence (ibrahim, 23). ozumba as quoted by ibrahim highlights five lessons derivable from gettier's thought experiments as follows: i. we can be mistaken about what we think we know ii. the most reliable source of information can deceive us iii. we may end up true in what we believe but not truly and procedurally in order, in our claim to have that knowledge. iv. our knowledge or grounds for knowledge may be based on mere coincidence. v. our claim to knowledge must be clear, certain and based on the proper reconditions (24). foundationalism is the belief that all knowledge or justified beliefs must be based on a solid foundation. this idea can be traced back to parmenides, who believed that reality was unchanging and permanent. foundationalism holds that there is a basic proposition whose truth can be directlyexperienced and is certain. this means that knowledge has a structure, with some beliefs being basic and others being inferred from these basic beliefs to be justified. there are two main types of foundationalism: cartesian and carnapian. cartesian foundationalism was proposed by rene descartes, who sought to find a secure foundation for knowledge by doubting all beliefs until he reached something indubitable. this led him to the belief that the thinking being, or "cogito," was the foundational belief. according to descartes, knowledge has a foundational structure and these foundations include beliefs about the content and operations of the mind. these foundational beliefs must be used to justify other beliefs, such as the existence of a world outside the mind and the reliability of scientific methods. carnapian foundationalism, proposed by carnap, is similar to cartesian foundationalism in that it seeks to determine which beliefs are justified by reducing them to sensory terms. it also includes a doctrinal aspect, similar to the cartesian program, which attempts to use the prescriptive part to justify beliefs about natural truths that have been reduced to sensory terms. carnap's goal was to construct a system 112 christopher an examination of w.v.o. quine's naturalized epistemology that would include all knowable objects, which he called "methodological solipsism." this system would include "constitutional definitions" as rules, allowing concepts to be reduced to sets of basic concepts as long as they can be transformed into sentences containing sense data. however, like the cartesian program, the carnapian program was ultimately unsuccessful in achieving its primary objectives. quine's naturalized epistemology in 1969 willard van orman quine published an essay on naturalized epistemology in which he submits that there should be a new dimension in the study of epistemology. quine begins by discussing the attempt to reduce mathematics to symbolic logic, an unsuccessful effort. he compares epistemology with the logical and set theory studies of the foundations of mathematics and bases his naturalized epistemology on its failure. according to him, “reduction in the foundation of mathematics remains mathematically and philosophically fascinating, but it does not do what the epistemologist would like of it; it does not reveal the ground of mathematical knowledge, it does not show how mathematical certainty is possible” (70). epistemology does not come before science, it starts with how we understand the universe in our common sense. he opposes descarte's view of all-knowing coming from certain foundation beliefs, he also disagrees with the idea that we can still know a proposition without experience to back up our truth. hebreaks the cartesian and the carnapian program into two parts; that is, the conceptual part and the doctrinal part. in his words; “studies in the foundation divide symmetrically into two sorts, conceptual and doctrinal. the conceptual studies are concerned with meaning, the doctrinal with the truth” (70). the conceptual part has to do with clarifying concepts, illuminating concepts, and showing the interrelation between concepts. in other words, the conceptual study of the foundation of mathematics seeks to find a set of rules which can be used to determine whether a given belief in question is justified or not, by reducing the belief to fundamental beliefs. put differently, conceptual foundationalism is the view that all empirical knowledge can be derived from basic observable beliefs. the meaning of every empirical concept can be reduced to sense experience. the idea is that the meaning of every sentence is just a set of observable consequences. for instance, if i say, this diamond is hard, this means that if this diamond is scratched with tin or iron then we will observe no mark. in this case, quine will say that not everything can be reduced to sense experience. the second part of cartesian foundationalism which quine pointed out is doctrinal. this is the view that a given belief is justified because it meets the condition. that is; it can be deduced from some foundational justified beliefs. simply put, the doctrinal part of the bifurcation is the part that should be used to prove the conceptual part. explaining the above, quine notes that, “explaining the notion of body in sensory terms; here is the conceptual side. and ... justifying our knowledge of truths of nature in sensory terms, here is the doctrinal side of the bifurcation” (71). the traditional project of epistemology has failed in both ways (conceptual and doctrinal), the doctrinal side fails because induction is not reliable, this was proven by hume in his discussion on induction that there are no fundamental unquestionable 113 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june truths. the conceptual side fails because only a conjunction of sentences can correlate with experience. the scientific terms cannot be translated into sense data, since there aren't exact translation rules. since the program earlier proposed just didn't work, quine suggests we should turn attention to a new method, he argued that because these types of traditional epistemology have failed in their goals concerning justification, epistemology itself should be replaced with a naturalized version. he wrote; but i think that at this point it may be more useful to say rather that epistemology still goes on, though in a new setting and a clarified status.epistemology, or something like it, simply falls into place as a chapter of psychology and hence of natural science. it studies a natural phenomenon, viz., a physical human subject. this human subject is accorded a certain experimentally controlled input—certain patterns of irradiation in assorted frequencies, for instance—and in the fullness of time, the subject delivers as output a description of the three-dimensional external world and its history. the relation between the meager input and the torrential output is a relation that we are prompted to study for somewhat the same reasons that always prompted epistemology; namely, to see how evidence relates to theory, and in what ways one's theory of nature transcends any available evidence (82-83). our body/brain is an instrument of knowledge; the body projects itself through the senses to get knowledge while the mind acts on the knowledge gotten. in naturalized epistemology “we are studying how the human subject of our study posits bodies and projects his physics from his data” (quine, 83). thus, the epistemology enterprise is a psychology chapter and it is part of the whole of natural science. it describes the relation between evidence (meager sensory out) and theory (torrential theoretical output). among the three main issues in epistemology, the nature of knowledge, how we acquire it, and its extent, naturalized epistemology is mainly focused on how we acquire knowledge. instead of looking at a person's belief and asking “are those beliefs justify”, we look at the person and ask; “what caused those beliefs” (psychological question). therefore, naturalizing epistemology means doing epistemology in the spirit of scientific methodology whereby we set our epistemology inquiry within the setting of making our construction or projection of making our construction or projection of the external world based on the interaction between inputs from stimulations on our sensory surfaces and inputs arising from our conceptual sovereignty (ozumba, 119). naturalized epistemology is a way of understanding how humans come to know about the natural world through their senses and experiences. according to quine, it is not possible to separate philosophy from science and make judgments about the nature of reality from a detached perspective. instead, he suggests that there is a close relationship between science and philosophy and that the philosopher's perspective is ultimately an extension of the scientific worldview. quine believes that there is a fundamental continuity and unity betweenscience and philosophy and that it is important to consider both to fully understand our place in the 114 christopher an examination of w.v.o. quine's naturalized epistemology world. quine's approach to naturalized epistemology seeks to solve the traditional puzzles of epistemology by focusing on how humans come to know about the world through their senses and experiences. in contrast to the "old" epistemology, which attempted to justify knowledge and sought to construct an understanding of the natural world from sense data, naturalized epistemology recognizes that our understanding of the world is shaped by the scientific theories and observations that we make. according to quine, the old epistemology attempted to contain natural science, but the new epistemology is a part of natural science itself. in this new approach, the emphasis is on simply observing and gathering data rather than trying to justify our knowledge. evaluation the study of epistemology has been dominated for nearly its entire lifetime from the point of view of the classical account of knowledge without recording any successful or notable progress. the best epistemologists could achieve was the program of rene descartes and carnap which was not still able to achieve it primary objectives and this is one of the reason we must give credit to quine for coming up with a new method in epistemology of course, there is no much motivation to continue searching for the solution of a particular problem for over hundreds of years using the same method, the same method that has failed us. it is therefore a noble course to embark upon a new direction for epistemology as suggested by quine. moreover, if epistemology is naturalized it will serve as a solution to the unending search for an indubitable condition of knowledge. but it is pertinent to note that quine is not introducing another condition that will serve as the fourth condition of knowledge, rather he is saying that instead of us to continue studying epistemology with methods that fails, it is better we try something new. since there are some level of objectiveness in science, it is better we use the methods of the science in our study of epistemology. by this, epistemology becomes part of science. while quine's approach to naturalized epistemology has been influential and has contributed to our understanding of how humans come to know about the world, it is not without its criticisms. some philosophers have argued that quine's approach fails to adequately address certain key issues in epistemology, such as the nature of justification and the relationship between knowledge andbelief. others have pointed out that quine's emphasis on observation and data gathering may not be sufficient to fully understand the complex and often subjective nature of human understanding. ultimately, the strengths and limitations of quine's naturalized epistemology will depend on the specific goals and priorities of the individual philosopher. many philosophers have criticized quine, the most popular of all his critiques is jaegwon kim. in his work titled what is naturalized epistemology? kim presented one of the arguments which seem to hold ground the most against naturalized epistemology. kim argues that the field of epistemology must be essentially normative; it must prescribe conditions for justification (or knowledge) and thereby determine which beliefs are justified (or can be considered knowledge). on this position kim writes that: if justification drops out of epistemology, knowledge itself drops out of epistemology, for our concept of knowledge is inseparably tied to that of 115 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june justification. quine's nonnormative, naturalized epistemology has no room for our concept of knowledge (389). what kim is trying to point out is that to some extent, all of the epistemology programs to date have often concern with justification of some sort. in fact, the word epistemology itself is defined as the study of the nature of knowledge, in practice, epistemology is the study of a validation or justification of a body of knowledge claims. thus, kim submits that naturalized epistemology has no bearing on the study of epistemology at all, it is only concern with causal relationships, not validation of knowledge claims (397). kim's views here seem to be very correct because there seem to be no much rational reason for replacing epistemology with a naturalized version which not only has radically different methods of procedure but radical different goals as well. unless naturalized epistemology and classical epistemology share some of their concerns, it will be difficult to see how an epistemology that has been purged of normativity, one that lacks an appropriate normative concept of justification or evidence can have anything to do with the concerns of traditional epistemology. and unless naturalized epistemology and classical epistemology share some of their central concerns, it's difficult to see how one could replace the other, or be a way (a better way) of doing the other (391). naturalized epistemology means that epistemology becomes part of psychology; psychology is not introspective but behaviouristic or developmental. the goal of the agent is dictated by self-interest, the agent being a species reduces epistemology to biology, he also belongs to a class that strives for survival and epistemology is further reducedto sociology and this reduction continues ad infinitum. this makes epistemology a field of study without a specific subject matter and scope. aside that, there are still some unresolved problems in psychology, if psychologist were that good in solving problems why are there still some unresolved issues in their field? quine's approach to naturalized epistemology has been influential in understanding how humans come to know about the world, but it is not without its criticisms. some argue that quine's approach doesn't truly replace epistemology with psychology, but rather eliminates it altogether. others claim that the traditional questions of epistemology, such as the nature of justification and the relationship between knowledge and belief, cannot be eliminated and are inherent in any attempt to construct an epistemology. some also argue that epistemology cannot be fully naturalized, as it deals with questions that are distinct from the practices of scientists and has its own unique set of questions to explore. additionally, the question of how to incorporate normativity into a naturalistic framework is still a topic of debate. finally, some criticize quine's naturalized epistemology for sidestepping certain fundamental questions that are problematic in this field. finally, some argue that quine's naturalized epistemology does not actually solve any problems in epistemology, but rather tries to sidestep certain fundamental questions that are problematic in this field. 116 christopher an examination of w.v.o. quine's naturalized epistemology conclusion the essence of naturalizing epistemology as seen in the work of quine lies in the fact man has cognitive limitations since he is subjected to space and time. therefore, man does not live in a static or changeless world. that is why naturalized epistemology is also concerned with contextualism. contextualism is a theory that holds that the meaning of something depends on the place and time. man is constantly influenced by new developments in the world. if this is the case, naturalized epistemology advocates that we should study the mental processes of man concerning the objects of his experience and put aside the question of an indubitable foundation that cannot be realized. if this happens, epistemology becomes part of psychology and ultimately an inherent part of natural science. quine's contribution to epistemology cannot be taken for granted, he must be applauded for advocating for something new in epistemology. however, it is pertinent to point out that this paper has noticed the change that quine tries to bring into epistemology but it does not completely support such change. quine in trying to naturalize epistemology ignores some fundamental partsof the study of epistemology. for instance, the question of justification does not have a chance of being answered in quine's “new epistemology”. quine did all he can to make sure that his naturalized epistemology eliminates the normative part of epistemology but the truth remains that the concept of knowledge has a connection with that of justification, at some point the two concepts seem inseparable. on this note, this paper recommends that, for naturalized epistemology to be upheld, it should be reconstructed in a way that gives room for justification, and normativity should be included in his “new epistemology”. naturalized epistemology should also shape its aims and objectives to fit in line with the basic concern of the old epistemology, for until this is done, it will be difficult to naturalize epistemology. works cited alex orenstein. w. v. quine: philosophy now. priceton university press, 2002. audi, r. (ed.) the cambridge dictionary of philosophy. (second edition). cambridge university press, 1999. blackburn, simon. oxford dictionary of philosophy. new york; von hoffman corporation, 2008. campbell, lewis. the theaetetus of plato. (translated). oxford: clarendon press, 1883. chisholm, roderick m. theory of knowledge. new jersey: prentice-hall, 1989. dancy, jonathan. introduction to contemporary epistemology. london; the macmillan, 1980. dale nancy. naturalized epistemology and the critique of evidence theory. oxford: clarendon press, 1999. donald, b. (eds). the encyclopedia of philosophy. london: the macmillian, 2005. fred, strong. kim's critique of quine's naturalized epistemology. accra: osungu publishers, 2002. george, rolf, a. the logical structure of the world: pseudo problems in philosophy. (translated). open court publishing co., 2003. 117 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june gettier, edmund l. “is justified true belief knowledge?” in. analysis, vol. 23, no. 6. june 1963.goldman, alvin. “discrimination and perceptual knowledge” in. journal of philosophy, vol. 73, 1976. ibrahim, a. “the problems in the definition of knowledge” in ayiba, k. o and e. o. john (eds.) living issues in epistemology. el-johns publishers, 2013. idang, g. e. ancient philosophy: a text for beginners. inela ventures & publishers ltd, 2008. kekes, j. "rationality and coherence" in. philosophical studies, vol. 26, 1974. kim, jaegwon. “what is naturalized epistemology?” in. philosophical perspectives, vol. 2 1998. lehrer, keith. “systematic justification: selection from knowledge” in. essays on knowledge and justification, westview press, 1990. mckirahan richard glossaries of philosophical terms. pomona faculty publications and research. 2015. ojong, k. a. and adekunle, a. ibrahim “the gettier problem and the correspondence theory of truth: a critical analysis” in. africa pentecost vol. 1 no. 1 dec 2007. okeke jonathan. “current trends in epistemology”. in ayiba, k. o and e. o. john (eds.) living issues in epistemology. el-johns publishers, 2013. olatunji, a. o. “quine's naturalized epistemology; a critique” in. obitun; journal of the humanities. vol. 3. no. 4. ozumba, g. o. a concise introduction to epistemology. jochrisam publishers, 2001. ozumba, g. o. understanding the philosophy of w.v.o quine, sambori publishers, calabar, 2002. pence, g. a dictionary of common philosophical terms. mcgraw-hill companies, 2000. qilin, li. quine's naturalized epistemology, epistemic normativity and the gettier problem. beijing: peking university publication. 1985. quine, w. v. “epistemology naturalized,” in ontological relativity and other essays.columbia up, 1969. quine, w. o. the time of my life: an autobiography. bradford books. 1985. schick, t. and vaughn l. doing philosophy: an introduction through thought experiments. mcgraw-hill company, 1999. spring, asley. “a critical examination of quinean naturalism”, in. athene noctua; undergraduate philosophy journal, vol. 1. 2016. christopher an examination of w.v.o. quine's naturalized epistemology 118 aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 1 a critical presentation of aristotle's contributions to sociopolitical philosophy iks j. nwankwor, ph.d. department of philosophy, university of uyo, uyo. abstract aristotle is a great philosopher of the ancient period in western philosophy. his works and contributions to philosophy, education and civilization, span through all fields of learning. his relevance in his age and subsequent years has not waned, even in our own generation. the thrust of our present work is to examine his contributions, particularly in the areas of sociopolitical philosophizing. in so doing, we shall be scooping materials from his works, analyzing them vis-à-vis other scholars contributions and critically augmenting the areas we feel need fine and proper approaches. it is hoped this would beef up literature in the field and assist budding scholars in understanding this sagacious sage of antiquity. keywords: critical, sociopolitical, philosophy and presentation introduction aristotle's background: life and times aristotle was born in 384 b.c. at stageira in chalcidice which was then under the dominion of macedon. aristotle's father was a physician who attended to amyntas, the king of macedon. later, when philip succeeded amyntas as king of macedon, he (philip) employed aristotle in 343 b.c. to teach his young son, the future alexander the great. aristotle taught alexander for about two years. although the content of what he (aristotle) taught him (alexander) is not known, but one can decipher from alexander's military invincibility that the diversity and fecundity of aristotle's philosophical mind must have opened the young alexander to the wisdom of different military tactics. it must have been in appreciation of aristotle's tutelage of him also, that alexander, the great, made him in-charge of alexanderian school of taught that was located in egypt. before his rise to academic prominence, aristotle left stageira in macedon to athens at the age of seventeen (17) to study mathematics, ethics and politics in the famous academy of plato. he stayed in plato's academy for twenty (20) years, learning and teaching. it must have been during this period that he wrote those dialogues on ethical and political matters which plutarch called platonic (dialogues). he left the academy after plato's death in 346 b.c., crossing the aegean sea to asia minor, where he settled in assos in the troad with some of his companions. here, to satiate his “rapidly extending intellectual interests,” he continued his scientific studies, especially in marine biology, the physical world and man's place in it. these studies helped him in forming a general outlook on man. “man was an animal, but he was the only animal that could be described as “political,” capable of, and designed by nature for life in a polis” (aristotle: the politics 1981:13). this general outlook on man will influence aristotle's contributions to sociopolitical debates, issues and philosophy. aristotle got married to his first wife from macedon around this time of his intellectual development, but went back to athens by 336 b.c. with his family. by 336 b.c. also, king philip (alexander's father) who was preparing to invade asia, having grouped greek states into a kind of federation, was assassinated. it was alexander, his son, who succeeded him and led the expedition. aristotle, with the support of macedonian upper class and macedonian antipater, whom alexander left in charge, while invaliding the eastern world, had no difficulty in establishing his school, the lyceum, with its adjoining walk (peripatos) in athens. it was this lyceum and peripatos that occupied aristotle's most important and productive periods of existence. while alexander reigned and was conquering the asian countries, aristotle, his teacher, enjoyed unrestricted academic freedom and prosperity. however, “the news of alexander's death in 323 was a signal for a revival of anti-macedonian feelings at athens and aristotle judged it prudent to retire to euboea, where he died in the following year (322 b.c.) at the age of about sixty-two (62)” (aristotle 1981:14). at the lyceum, aristotle lectured with a staff of lecturers that were as vast and diversified as he was. he had ingenuous people like the botanist, theophrasian, author of the popular work “characters.” the branches of knowledge they lectured include: the theoria (theoretike), which is truly philosophical and truly scientific, based on the methods of observation and contemplation. the courses taught were theology, metaphysics, astronomy, mathematics, biology, botany, meteorology. the other branch is the practical (praktike) in which they taught ethics, politics, rhetoric and poetics, using the methods of collecting, studying and analyzing available data. the knowledge or sciences in this group have practical aim and relevance; therefore, the students are expected to be practitioners in a sense. this idea of knowledge for use/utility or “power” (in the words of francis bacon) is no less evident in the fields of ethics and politics. “in ethics and politics, for example, it does not suffice to learn what things are; they must find out also what can be done about them” (aristotle 1981:15). it is with this sagacity of mind and blend of thoughts that aristotle ventured into sociopolitical realm (having studied so many constitutions). we shall briefly examine his contributions to sociopolitical philosophy from four different perspectives namely: a. his conception of man, the theory of the state, constitution of government and ethics b. his conception of law and justice in the state c. his theory of equality, sharing of power and property, economic theory and systems of government and ideology d. his educational policy, principles and theory. a. aristotle on man, state, government and ethics: aristotle is one of those earliest authors who have homogenous perception of the nature of man. he believes that man by nature is social and political, endowed with the power of intellect for rational and moral reasoning, as well as the power of speech for communication, affecting and influencing his existential domains, either positively or negatively. he writes: nature… does nothing without some purpose; and she has endowed man alone among the animals with the power of speech. 2 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june speech… serves to indicate what is useful and what is harmful, and so, also what is just and what is unjust. for the real difference between men and other animals is that humans alone have perception of good and evil, just and unjust, etc. it is the sharing of a common view in these matters that makes a household and a state (aristotle 1981:60). on the origin, nature and purpose of the state, aristotle based his theories on several premises, according to puja mondal (https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com…). “…the origin of the state depends on the triangular nature of the human soul…” according to aristotle, “life manifests through several forms – vegetation, animals and men. the vegetative soul performs only two (2) functions, viz; nutrition and growth. …the animal soul is vegetative soul and passion; human soul, on the other hand, is vegetative soul (appetite) coupled with the animal soul (passion) and reason.” this principle naturally followed, even in the society, where the vegetative soul is seen as manifesting in the family, the animal soul in the village, while the human soul is seen as manifesting in the state. so, the state for aristotle is natural and organic and not artificial or conventional as some social contract theorists hold. the state for him is the highest kind of community or human organization. thus, just as the human soul retains the features of the vegetative and animals souls, the state naturally incorporates the family, made up of men and women, masters and slaves as well as the village structure; for several families combined make a village, several villages form a state – provided that it is self-sufficing. worthy of note also is that aristotle's derivation of the state from the “triangular nature of the human soul” is related to his theory of causes. according to his causal theory, the final cause is the end or purpose “which a thing attains,” that is, its essential form. he reasons that, “…the state is the natural end and culmination of the other and earlier associations, which were themselves natural; the state therefore exists by nature” (aristotle 1981:55). in other words, “the human society, when fully developed, becomes a state and thus, the nature of human society, for what each thing is when fully developed, we call its nature” (aristotle 1981:55). thus, “the state, though later in time than the family, is prior to it,” just like the whole of an organism is prior to its part. the implication of this is that an individual or a village cannot “fulfill his/her purpose unless he/she is part of a state” (confer: aristotle the politics 1981:55). the state, “…provides all men's needs (materials, social, religious etc.), and offers them the fulfillment not only of living, but of living “well” in accordance with those virtues that are peculiarly human. the state is thus “all – providing,” which is best, which is characteristic of natural ends” (aristotle 1981: 55). the state, therefore, being self-sufficient and all-providing by nature, has the responsibility of not only “…securing life itself,” but “…it continues in being to secure the good life” (aristotle 1981:59). this is why man cannot afford not to be in a state. stressing this point, aristotle writes: …man is by nature a political animal (politikon zoon). anyone who by his nature and not simply ill-luck has no state is either too bad or too good, either subhuman or superhuman – he is like the 3 iks j. nwankwor a critical presentation of aristotle's ... war-mad man condemned in homer's words as 'having no family, no law, no home… he is a non-cooperator… (aristotle 1981:5960). by this explanation of the natural existence of the state, aristotle distinguishes himself from the position of social contract theorists especially, those who taught that the state is alien and hostile to man, such as thomas hobbes. it should be observed that, by this natural and organismic theory of the state, aristotle would unwittingly, be joining camp with totalitarians, who subsume the individual, his/her rights and privileges, under totalitarian and authoritarian principles. it may also be pointed out that although aristotle rooted the origin of the state to association of villages, then to families and finally to the human soul, yet, he did not stretch the logic from the human soul, to its (soul's) ontological origin. b. on law and justice: the aim or purpose of the state for aristotle is the good life; the state, according to him, is not merely a society “for exchange and the prevention of crime.” it is “an association intended to enable its members in their households and their kinships (gene, clans) and villages …to live well; its purpose is a perfect and self-sufficient life… and that, we hold, means living happily and nobly” (kalos, “fine,” “good”) (aristotle 1981:198). but to realize the happy life in the polis (state), aristotle has recommended a constitutional government which lives according to laws and justice. he praises the founder of the state, who introduced law as the greatest of benefactors, “for without law man is the worst of animals, and law depends for its existence on *the state” (aristotle 1981:55). however, aristotle has different characteristics of laws as “order,” “reason,” and “agreement.” generally, laws are …rules that produce a kind of order in the actions and desires of the citizens, which are devised in a rational manner by a legislator and which are effective only if the governed accept and obey them (https://lawexplores.com>aristotles-...). according to aristotle, there are two (2) sources of this law or orderliness viz; nature and reason. from this perspective, the purpose of law would be moral, that is, “to make men good and righteous, above all, to serve the common interest” (https://www.cambridge.org>...) law then is a prescription for the good of all departments of life. for aristotle, “laws prescribe for all the departments of life, aiming at the common advantage, either of all the citizens or of the best of them, or of the ruling class, or on some such basis” (aristotle, ethics 1976:173). the prescription of law is in form of a commandment of some kinds of behaviour or a prohibition of others. for “the law commands; some kinds of behaviour and forbids others …” (aristotle 1976:173). examples of some “goodness” and “wickedness” which the law enjoins (commands) and prohibits (forbids) include: brave conducts, such as, not leaving one's duty post, or taking to flight, or throwing away one's weapons; or fearing the outcome of acting from one's good conscience. it also include the commandments on temperate conducts, such as not committing adultery or assault, not stealing what belongs to another, or greed in taking possession of a common good. the law also commands (enjoins) patient conducts, such as refraining from blows 4 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june or abuse, waiting for one's turn in temporal distributions, bearing the injuries and pains that may be necessitated by one's state or calling in life. while the law commands (enjoins) bravery, temperance and patience, it forbids (prohibits) their opposites, such as cowardice, intemperance and impatience. for aristotle, the law is right, if these conducts commanded or forbidden are rightly enacted; but the law may not be right, if what it commands or forbids and enforces is an improvisation (an act of improvision/improvising) such as edicts and bylaws or regulations. aristotle maintains that if what the law commands or forbids is rightly enacted and perhaps, properly enforced, there would be justice, a universal justice, which is complete virtue. in this sense, we may also add that there could be just law(s) or unjust law(s) depending on whose or what purpose the law is serving or meant to serve. on justice: justice is attributed of law(s) if its purpose is good or virtuous, that is if it is serving a moral excellence. aristotle noted that the virtue meant here is “in relation to somebody else” (aristotle 1976:173). it is also in this sense that justice is “regarded as the sovereign virtue” or the summation of virtue. justice is the sum of virtue or complete virtue because its exercise requires obedience to an external factor or somebody else, while other virtues do not necessarily require their possessor to exercise them “in relation to another person” (aristotle 1976:174). there is no gainsaying the fact that obedience to oneself is sometimes very hard not to talk of offering it to another person. aristotle puts this fact succinctly in this way: “…there are plenty of people who can behave uprightly in their own affairs, but are incapable of doing so in relation to somebody else (aristotle 1976:174). for aristotle, justice is “a social virtues that belongs to people insofar as they live with, cooperate with and rely on others (https://www.colorado.edu> lee-justice). it has to do with “proper relations with and fulfillment of obligations to others” (https://www.colorado.edu>leejustice). aristotle defines justice in terms of its opposites, whereby he determines what justice consists in, and its opposite becomes unjust (justice). this type of determination works well with certain sorts of “opposite;” such as justice. however, the “equality part (of justice) has to do with not grasping far more than what is fair” (https://www.uvm.edu>notes/crant ).4 consequently, aristotle notes that there are two (2) types of justice, namely, universal justice and particular justice. universal justice is had when one is obedient to laws or is said to be virtuous. particular justice is further divided into two (2), namely, “ d i s t r i b u t i v e j u s t i c e a n d r e m e d i a l o r c o r r e c t i v e j u s t i c e ” (https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com>...). distributive justice “involves dividing benefits and burdens fairly among members of a community…” in this sense, the state is expected to “…divide or distribute goods and wealth among citizens,” in order of their merit. according to aristotle, distributive justice manifests in “the distributions of honour or money or other things that fail to be divided among those who have a share in the constitution (for in these it is possible for one man to have share either unequal or equal to that of another)” (https://www.jetir. org>papers). it is also in this sense that aristotle will consider justice as “treating equals equally and unequals unequally (meaning people get what they deserve)” (retrieved november, 2021 – https://study.com>learn>plato-aris). thus, it is not surprising that aristotle justifies slavery on the grounds that the slave is naturally inferior to the master. according to him: 5 iks j. nwankwor a critical presentation of aristotle's ... …one has to admit that there are some who are slaves everywhere, others who are slaves nowhere: and the same is true of noble birth: nobles regard themselves as of noble birth not only among their own people but everywhere,” …it is expedient for one to be master, the other to be the slave, whereas the one must be ruled, the other should exercise the rule for which he is fitted by nature, thus a21 b4being the master” (aristotle 1981:72-73 (1255 & 1255 )). c. (1). on equality: thus, justice for aristotle, just like thrasymachus in plato's republic, is in favour of the stronger or superior, since apart from being inferior or a slave by natural endowment, one could also be a slave by being a prisoner of war, having been conquered by the superior power or forces of his master or victor. so, as a matter of fact, slaves or inferiors have no proper claims in distributive justice. however, aristotle still believed that distributive justice (which concerns mainly political privileges), was the most powerful law to prevent revolution. this is so because this type of justice gives room for proper and proportionate allocation of offices, honours, goods and services, the only requirement for a beneficiary being membership (a citizen) of the state (polis) in question. c. (2). sharing of power: aristotle “…rejected democratic as oligarchic criteria of justice and permitted the allocation of offices to the virtuous only owing to their highest contributions to the society, because the virtuous people are few. aristotle believes that most of the offices should be allocated to those few only” (article shared by puja mondal: https://www. yourarticlelibracry.com>…). by virtue in respect of justice, aristotle means “a rational mean between bad extremes.” defining “the mean,” he says: the “mean” of justice lies between the vices of getting too much and getting too little, relative to what one deserves, these being two (2) opposite types of injustice, one of “disproportionate excess,” the other of disproportionate “deficiency” (aristotle a b a 1976:67-74, 76 (1129 -1132 , 1134 )). c. (3). sharing of property: at this juncture, it may as well be proper to point out that aristotle considers justice both as a political, as well as a moral virtue. thus, the other type of particular justice, which deals with moral issues, is known as remedial or corrective justice. remedial (corrective) justice is further “divided into two (2), dealing with voluntary transactions (civil law) and dealing with involuntary transaction (criminal law).” all laws and issues relating to commercial transactions are dealt within the remedial and corrective justices or actions. this moral justice aims at restoring what an individual had lost due to injustice of the society. this type of justice prevents from encroachments of one right over the other. according to aristotle, “…corrective justice requires us, in some circumstances, to try to restore a fair balance in interpersonal relations where it has been lost” (from: western theories of justice in internet encyclopedia of philosophy). aristotle pointed out the areas covered by remedial or corrective justice as relating to “voluntary and commercial activities such as hire, sale and furnishing security. these actions involve aggression on life, property, honour and freedom. in brief, this justice aims at virtue and moral excellence of character and it is for this reason, it is called corrective justice.” 6 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june thus, for aristotle, justice consists in what is lawful – universal justice and what is fair – particular justice. in respect of fairness, justice involves equitable distributions – political virtue and correcting or remedying of what is inequitable, which is a function of moral virtue or justice. to determine proportionate equality or equity, would involve the determination of “the intermediate” position between someone's unfairly getting “less” than is deserved and unfairly getting “more” at another's expense” (aristotle 1976:67-74, a b a76 (1129 – 1132 , 1134 )). what this justice as fairness means, for aristotle, is that everyone is given or gets what is due him/her, regarding his/her circumstance – equality, and that no one is given or gets “less” or “more” than he/she deserves. however, it must yet be emphasized that aristotle does not believe in equality. he sanctions the subjugation of women and slaves, as well as politically unequal or inferiors. c. (4). economic theory: furthermore, aristotle's economic theory is capitalistic as opposed to plato's communism. he does not favour plato's common sharing of women and by extension, children and fatherhood (patrimony). his preference is private ownership of property, but he adds, according russell, that, “people should be so trained in benevolence, as to allow the use of it to be largely common” (russell 119). his reason, according to russell, is that: “benevolence and generosity are virtues and without private property, they are impossible” (russell 199). our position is that no economic theory is altogether good that it may not be faulted nor is any altogether bad that it may not yield success. nevertheless, all need truthfulness, honesty and sincerity; above all, economic theories should be based on human concern, love and kindness for meaningful and positive impact. c. (5) system of government: moreover, aristotle's system or theory of government does not favour democracy. he would rather go for monarchy, aristocracy or constitutionalism. he outlined three (3) kinds of good government in their descending order as: monarchy, aristocracy and constitutionalism with their opposites as: tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. but, he also noted some intermediate forms of government. aristotle's determination of the goodness or badness of a government is based on the ethical qualities of the holders of power and not on the form of constitution. his preference for aristocracy (a rule of men of virtues) to oligarchy (a rule of the rich) is based on this contention that virtue stands in the mean (middle) and so men of excessive wealth (like the oligarchs) may not be virtuous. his doctrine of the golden mean in terms of virtues and happiness runs thus: mankind do not acquire or preserve virtue by the help of external goods, but external goods by the help of virtue and happiness, whether consisting in pleasure or virtue, or both, is more often found with those who are most highly cultivated in their mind and in their character and have only a moderate share of external goods, than among those who possess external goods to a useless extent but are deficient in higher qualities (aristotle, the politics: a b 1323 and in russell 200). the rule of the best (aristocracy) is therefore preferable to the rule of the richest (oligarchy) “since the best are likely to have only moderate fortunes” (russell 200). the only distinction between monarchy and tyranny, for aristotle, is one based on ethical 7 iks j. nwankwor a critical presentation of aristotle's ... consciousness. here below is aristotle's classification of different governments and their opposites: from the above, bertrand russell surmises that aristotle's argument is: “monarchy is better than aristocracy, aristocracy is better that polity (constitutionalism). but, the corruption of the best is worst: therefore tyranny is worse than oligarchy and oligarchy than democracy” (russell 201). from this position, one could say that aristotle arrived at a qualified defense of democracy: “for most actual governments are bad and therefore, among actual (bad) governments, democracy tends to be best” (russell 201). as revolutions were rife in the greek city-states, where aristotle operated, he recommends three (3) things needed to prevent them, namely: (a.) propaganda in education; (b.) respect of law, even in small things, and (c.) justice in law and administration, that is, equality according to proportion and for every man to enjoy his a b a own (aristotle, the politics (1307 , 1307 , 1310 ) in russell 201). in respect of the population of an ideal state, aristotle opined that a state “ought to be large enough to be more or less self-sufficing, but not too large for constitutional government” (russell 203). all said and done, aristotle's theory of government follows his practical sense of wisdom in arguments. we concur with him that the system of government practiced may not be the problem, but the people practicing it, especially those at the helm of affairs (leaders). we also agree with him on the role of virtue and virtuous leaders and citizens for good and prosperous governance. however, we point out that the role of an absolute law-giver – god, in whom and through whom all virtuous acts gain relevance and to whom all man-made (positive) laws are referenced for meaningfulness and efficacy, cannot be down-played. any system of government in practice depends on god and the application of godly principles for its success. a. educational policy and theory: nevertheless, education, for aristotle, is inevitable for the achievement of political goals. but, his educational theory is deficient both in content or curriculum and in application, that is, to those who are beneficiaries. it is only the citizens, according to aristotle, that could partake in the share of political power and education as well. his educational policy in the state is discriminatory against slaves who are to receive education, if at all, only in useful acts, such as cooking, but not full citizenship education. we note that aristotle's policy in education was influenced by his objective for the state. for aristotle, “the aim of the state is …to produce cultured gentlemen, who combine the aristocratic mentality with love of learning and the arts” (russell 204). 8 s/n good governments s/n bad governments 1. monarchy (best) 1. tyranny (worst) 2. aristocracy (better) 2. oligarchy (worse) 3. constitutionalism/polity (good) 3. democracy (bad) aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june thus, decency in speech, avoiding vulgarization, are to be cultivated in the education of the citizen. the education of the citizens' children is made to emphasize moral ideals and de-emphasize professional skills in athletics, as this may drift them from their political ambitions. for aristotle, the purpose of education is for “virtue” (as stated in his ethics) and not just for “usefulness.” the children of the citizens should learn drawing, in order to appreciate the beauty of the human form; they should be taught painting and sculpture as expressions of moral ideals, they may learn to sing and to play musical instruments enough to be able to enjoy music critically, but not enough to be skilled performers, for no freeman would play or sing unless drunk; they must learn to read and write, as they are “useful arts” for his political ambitions. aristotle's educational theory, principles and policies, found their highest practical expressions and perfection in athens under the leadership of pericles, among the well-to-do, not with the entire population. we observe that the thrust of aristotle's educational policy is political; hence its contents and scope of applications are limited. thus, we note that education serves multifarious purposes and as such, its horizons, contents (curriculum/curricula) and spheres of application (beneficiaries), is expected to be integral, comprehensive, all-including, all-involving and all-partaking. education should be able to touch all aspects of man in his living environment and address all issues engaging man in his existence and involvements. consequently, education should be able to touch the totality of man and his environment of existence from the perspectives of somatic/body affections and feelings, physiological/ anatomical levels, psychological/mental states, spiritual cum economic influences, scientific-technological developments, as well as health and total well-being. there should be no discrimination in the application of the values of education or its beneficiaries. discriminatory attitudes based on sex, tribe, social status, political and social lineages, economic/financial positions or any such affiliations should be decried in highest terms in the delivery of education. however, content censorship of educational curriculum(a) may be necessary for people of particular ages and circumstances; but, utmost care must be taken to make sure that this does not become the general rule “modus operandi” (operational mode or means). furthermore, care must be taken to ensure that education does not become a means of operation, suppression, deprivation or subjugation of some class of people in the society by depriving them or making it impossible for them to gain education and its values. for the aforementioned reason of censorship and educational application, educators, educationists, curriculum planners and implementers should first undergo serious and rigorous trainings in morals and religious prudence by competent, trusted and reliable experts. evaluation and conclusion aristotle and his mentor – plato, have laboured so much to furnish western philosophy, education, and civilization with the skeletons and rubrics which have made them appealing to the entire world over the years. aristotle, specifically, brought philosophy from platonic olympian mountains of idealism to the accessible valleys of realism and made us see the other side of the coin of reason. we think their pedagogical and preparatory pace need commendation for the vast areas they covered, the issues they raised, the insights they brought and the explanations they gave. in our present exercise, 9 iks j. nwankwor a critical presentation of aristotle's ... we examined aristotle's contributions to sociopolitical, philosophy from the perspectives of his background, life and times, his notions, content and constitution of the ideal state, his ideas on law and justice, through his theories/systems of economics and government, to his educational policies and theory in the state (polis). we have also offered our own little assessments, observations and inputs to augment the areas we felt needed some fine polishing. it is our hope that working on the pedestal of venerable men and women of antiquity and ancient scholars and sages, and improving on their legacies, following divine principles, can put the global human society on solid foundations in economic matters, sociopolitical fields, scientific and technological ingenuities, and other realms of learning. works cited aristotle, ethics (the nicomachean ethics). trans. by j.a.k. thomson and rev. by hugh tredeanick, penguin books ltd., 1976. aristotle, the politics (revised edition). trans. by t.a. sinchair and rev. by trevor j. saunders, penguin books ltd., 1981. article shared by puja mondal: aristotle theory of origin of state: concepts, elements and necessary conditions. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com. russell, bertrand, a history of western philosophy. george allen and unwin ltd. (counterpoint edition), 1984. internet encyclopedia of philosophy, western theories of justice. https://lawexplores.com>aristotles https://www.cambridge.org> https://www.colorado.edu> lee-justice https://www.uvm.edu>notes/crant4 https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com>... https://www.jetir. org>papers retrieved november, 2021 10 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june reviewing modern scientific knowledge within the scope of nietzsche’s irrationalism oreoluwa idris adesanya abstract human knowledge has been constrained into two major bifurcations; knowledge based on factual experience and those based on value, instincts and intuitions. scientific knowledge is claimed to be based on empirically verifiable data; thereby being considered as the most reliable system of inquiry ever developed by human civilizations. scientific knowledge is esteemed to be a systematic inquiry, which emphasizes the superiority of human reason over human intuitions, instincts and impulses. however, friedrich nietzsche expresses strong disgust for the over-glorification and exaltation of reason over those elements of human nature that serve as alternative sources of knowledge such as dark strivings, vitalism, intuitions, instincts and impulses. nietzsche criticizes all forms of system building as expressed in the universalization of fixed scientific methods, universal conceptions of truth and knowledge and the very idea of unquestionable religious morality and social norms. for nietzsche, what is needed for the liberation of the human soul; and the realization of the ―will to power‖, is the abandonment of reason and the celebration of the dark instincts, creative intuitions and animalistic outbursts, which represent the irrational part of human nature. the ―will‖, which is a symbol of irrationality, defines human nature in its crudest form. this work proposes two major contentions: the first is that scientific knowledge is exclusive, as it denies the authenticity, validity and efficacy of other non-rational and non-systematic modes of knowing. the second contention of the paper is that there exist, non-rational, authentic, valid and efficacious elements of human nature that serve as reliable modes of apprehending knowledge, beneath and beyond rational and systematic epistemic modes, which are elaborated by friedrich nietzsche in his philosophical irrationalism. keywords: irrational, rational, science, nietzsche, system, method, knowledge. 1. introduction the modern civilized man is totally overwhelmed by the dominance of rationalism. he embraces reason as the major faculty that is responsible for his choices and decisions. he is totally in praise of science and emphasizes the rational part of his nature at the expense of a part which is more indebt in his nature (i.e. the human will). modern scientific knowledge is being projected to be based on the principles of rationality and objectivity, thereby representing the only form of reliable knowledge available to man. this is exactly the image that the scientific community likes to project of itself, which is considered by wilhelm newton-smith, as that of ―rationality per excellence‖ (newton-smith, 2003). p.1. according to newton-smith, the ―scientific community sees itself as the very paradigm of aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), institutionalized rationality. it is taken to be in possession of something, the scientific method, which generates a ‗logic of justification‘‖ (newton-smith, 2003). the assumption that science represents the paradigm of institutionalized rationality, as being commonly admitted and accepted by the scientific community, implies that there is ‗something special‘ about science, which distinguishes it from other human intellectual endeavors, such as philosophy, theology, history and the rest. however, most members of the scientific community are of the opinion that a characteristic feature of science, which makes it ‗special‘, is the ―logic of discovery‖, which serves as privileged method of formulating and validating theories, involving continuous problem-solving activities. the overwhelming glorification of science over other human activities derives in large part from the successes of recent science and modern physics in particular. the exclusivity of scientific knowledge in contemporary times was triggered in large part by the emergence of logical positivism in the 20 th century, which was a movement that bifurcated knowledge into two, by introducing a criterion of significance: known as the verifiability criterion. the verifiability criterion affirms that a piece of knowledge or intellectual enterprise is only to be regarded as meaningful when it either passes the test of empirical validation or is explainable by definition (ayer, 1959). the verifiability criterion proposes that the meaningfulness, truth and validity of a statement can only be deduced from the possibility of stating the facts that make them possible. a prominent logical positivist, moritz schlick, espouses this view, by stating in clear terms that: ―it is the first step of any philosophizing, and the foundation of all reflection, to see that it is simply impossible to give the meaning of any statement except by describing the fact which must exist if the statement is to be true. if it does not exist then the statement is false‖ (schlick, 1932), p. 88. an implication of the logical positivist‘s contention on the place of empirical verification for modern science is that science is an intellectual enterprise that is based on rationality and the facts of experience. scientific claims must therefore by testable by experience. however, friedrich nietzsche, being a proponent of philosophical irrationalism, discredits the scientific and positivist claim that reason and experience alone determines reliable knowledge, while affirming the irrational elements of human cognition, such as ―the will‖, instinct, intuition, emotion, dark strivings and the rest, as bases for reliable knowledge (nietzsche, 2010). in this paper, we attempt an exposition of the movement of irrationalism, synthesizing and contrasting it with its counterpart; rationalism. the scope of the paper is to project nietzsche as a prominent figure in the dethronement of reason, and the embracement of the non-rational part of human nature, as the initiator of postmodernism, and as well discuss the implications of nietzsche‘s irrationalism for the enterprise of modern science. this paper shall also attempt a review of the major contentions of modern science within the scope of the irrationalist pretensions of nietzsche‘s philosophy. adesanya reviewing modern scientific knowledge … 2. the rational image of science modern science is being widely conceived as the paradigm of rationality and the sole model of truth, which possesses the exclusive methods of arriving at reliable knowledge and problem-solving. science is generally considered as ―any ―systematized‖, ―organized‖ or ―classified‖ body of knowledge which has been critically tested and is beyond reasonable doubt‖ (nagel, 1961), p. 3. therefore, for any piece of knowledge to be tagged ‗scientific‘, it must result from a systematized, organized and classified procedure, which is guided by an underlying logic of discovery, mostly described as a method. jack aigbodioh identifies four characteristic features of science, which include the fact that science is said to be specific, public, impersonal and objective (1997), p. 3. the specificity of natural science is evident in the fact that science solely enquires into particular and identifiable objects which are observable in the physical world of experience, rather than merely abstract or metaphysical ideas which are beyond the realm of observable reality. science is being considered as being able to provide us with exact explanations of the nature of phenomena around us as they actually are. the enterprise of science is regarded as being public in character, owing to the fact that the methods, techniques and procedures of science are exoteric, rather than being esoteric. this implies that scientific knowledge can be taught to the generality of persons, and can be interpersonally or inter-subjectively verifiable, rather than being known by a select few who hold an exclusive right to such knowledge. similar to the public character of science is the claim that the enterprise of natural science is impersonal. science is often considered as being devoid of idiosyncratic, sentimental, and imaginative beliefs or ideas, but is rather ―dispassionate and unprejudiced‖ (aigbodioh, 1997), p. 4. science bases its explanations on factual judgments rather than value judgments. the objective character of scientific claims, theories, principles and laws lies in the fact that they are all drawn from the concrete or material facts of the physical world of everyday perceptual experience. science is said to be objective because it is entirely based on facts. the factual nature of scientific propositions is given a clearer picture by alan chalmers, when he writes that: ―when it is claimed that science is special because it is based on the facts, the facts are presumed to be claims about the world that can be directly established by a careful, unprejudiced use of the senses. science is to be based on what we can see, hear and touch rather than on personal opinions or speculative imaginings‖ (1999), p. 1. moreover, the specific, public, impersonal and objective characters of the sciences are said to confer on them ―the amazing power to uncover the truth about the world as it actually is, constituting them into knowledge par excellence‖ (aigbodioh, 1997), p. 5. however, the received view of science that scientific knowledge is derived from the facts of the physical world of perception is often attributed to two schools of thought, namely: empiricism and logical positivism (chalmers, 1999), p. 3. the british empiricists, notably, aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), john locke, george berkeley, and david hume share the common view that all knowledge are derived from ideas in the mind which are implanted by sensory perception. these ideas are regarded by david hume as sense impressions which are products of perceptions of external physical objects (hume, 1975). the external physical objects thereby serve as the facts, which every scientific theory should attempt to fit. the logical positivists, such as alfred jules ayer, carl g. hempel, rudolf carnap, moritz schlick, and the rest, also subscribe to the empiricist view that scientific knowledge, and knowledge generally is primarily derived from the facts of experience (ayer, 1959). the logical positivists were more interested in the form of the logical relationship between scientific knowledge and the facts. the positions of the british empiricists and the logical positivists imply that modern scientific thinking is firmly based on the principles of rationality, which include: objectivity, impersonality, precision, soundness, validity, deduction, and induction. 3. philosophical irrationalism the age of enlightenment brought with it, an appraisal of reason as the determinant factor for human personality and guide to all human endeavors. during this age, reason was regarded as sovereign. philosophers therefore, defined human beings by their capacity to think critically. this thought system was challenged by some thinkers in the late nineteenth century. the enlightenment conception of human rationality was questioned, while the irrational aspects of human nature were emphasized. these thinkers now saw existential elements of human life such as blind strivings, animal instincts as the primary fact of human existence. for them, reason exercised a very limited influence over human conduct and that much more than logical consciousness, all forces below the surfaces, such as: impulses, drives, instincts, feeling, and will determine human behavior (russell, 1945). irrationalism is a nineteenth century and early twentieth century philosophical movement which advocated the non-rational aspects of human behavior as being necessary for apprehending human life. that human life could be better explained and understood by expanding it beyond the rational to it fuller dimensions. although, in philosophical history, irrationalists could be found before the nineteenth century, especially in the predominantly rationalistic ancient greek culture in the works of a poets like pinder, dramatists, and even in such philosophers as pythagoras, empedocles and plato, who all share a dionysian (instinctive) influence (perry, 1992). irrationalism is a multi-faceted reaction against the dominance of reason in philosophical history, with various strands, and orientations on the role played by reason in human behavior. some thinkers recognize the weakness of reason, continued to value it and sought to preserve it as an essential ingredient of civilized life, while for others, the creative potential of the irrational aspect of human behavior is to be emphasized. they urged the embracing of the feelings which they considered vital to artistic creativity and a richer existence. there are still others who strongly oppose the claim of scientists and the adesanya reviewing modern scientific knowledge … positivists that only mathematical truths or principles and analytical reason was the supreme arbiter of knowledge and the only part to certainty. they argued otherwise that the truths discovered by the intellect were less profound than those grasped by our interior sentiments. ―like the romantics, proponents of the non-rational placed more reliance on feeling, spontaneity, instinct, intuition, and other non-rational sources of knowledge than on reason. they belittled the intellect‘s attempts to comprehend reality, scorned the liberal-rational tradition, praised outbursts of the irrational, and in some instances lauded violence‖ (perry, 1992). in fact, new insights were gained into the irrational side of human nature which along with the growing assault on reason influenced political life hugely. in later decades, the various currents of irrationalism mentioned above became ideologized and politicized by ―unscrupulous demagogues‖ who sought to mobilize and manipulate the masses, with their emphasis on a chiefly aristotelian society (perry, 1992). a typical example of such ideological orientation was the fascist movements, which openly denigrated reason and exalted race, blood, action, and will. this runs against the position of nineteenth century liberals who held that reason had triumphed in all of human affairs. in early modern philosophy, even when cartesian rationalism was developing, blaise pascal turned from reason to an augustinian faith, claiming that the ―heart has its reasons‖ unknown to reason itself. irrationalism emphasized things about the life of the spirit and human history that could not be dealt with or handled by rational methods of science (frankfurt, 1982), p. 92. the likes of charles darwin and later sigmund freud made irrationalism a movement interested in the exploration of biological and subconscious roots of human experience. philosophical theories and movements like pragmatism, existentialism, and vitalism (or ―life philosophy‖) all arose as expressions of this expanded view of human life and thought (stumpf, 2003). arthur schopenhauer, a typical nineteenth century irrationalist, exposited the idea of voluntarism, which expressed the essence of human life meaning a blind purposeless will permeating all existence (russell, 1945). among the pragmatists, charles sanders peirce and william james, the mind evolved as an instrument for practical adjustment and not as an organ for the rational plumbing of metaphysics. for them, ideas are not to be assessed in terms of logic but in terms of their practical results when put to the test of action. irrationalism is also expressed in the historicism and relativism of wilhelm dilthey, who saw all knowledge as conditioned by one‘s private historical perspective and who thus urged the importance of the ―geisteswussenschaften‖ (the humanities) (2002). another irrationalist, johann georg hamann, claims that truth could be found in feeling, faith, experience and personal conviction, above mere speculation. friedrich heinrich jacobi exalted the certitude and clarity of faith to the detriment of intellectual knowledge and sensation (perry, 1992). the likes of friedrich schelling and henri bergson who were also preoccupied with the uniqueness of human experience, relied on the idea of intuitionism, ―which sees things invisible to science.‖ in fact, they did not attack reason itself, the belief aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), was that it had lost its commanding role in as much as personal insights are not to be tested. bergson‘s philosophy and as well as that of nietzsche, was a form of vitalism and as well irrationalistic in holding that instinctive, or dionysian drive lies at the heart of existence (russell, 1945). friedrich nietzsche saw moral codes as mere myths, lies and frauds created to mask forces operating beneath the surface to influence thought and behavior. nietzsche professed that humans are free to formulate new values by claiming that god is dead (nietzsche, 2002). another thinker, ludwig klages extended life philosophy in germany by urging that the irrational springs of human life are ―natural‖ and should be followed in a deliberate effort to root out the adventitious reason; while oswald spengler extended it to history, which he viewed intuitively as an irrational process of organic growth and decay (stumpf, 2003). in existentialism, soren kierkegaard, jean-paul sartre, and albert camus all frowned at making sense out of an incoherent world; and each chose his own alternative to reason the leap of faith, radical freedom, and heroic revolt, respectively (barret, 1962). generally, irrationalism implies either that the world is devoid of rational structure, meaning, and purpose; or that reason is inherently defective and incapable of knowing the universe without distortion; or that recourse to objective standards is futile; or that in human nature itself the dominant dimensions are irrational. 4. nietzsche and the irrationalist movement friedrich nietzsche was the principal figure in the ―dethronement of reason‖ and the glorification of the irrational. for him, life abounds in cruelty, injustice, uncertainty, and absurdity and this is a fact man must understand in order to enjoy full existence. nietzsche holds firmly that life is not governed by rational principles, there is no absolute standard of good and evil, no timeless principles, whose truth can be demonstrated or proven by the activity of reflective reason. the idea of a transcendental world or what could be called the higher world of metaphysics and even the christian heaven is for him, a myth. nietzsche claims that nothing is true, all what is available to man is his naked self (naked man) living in a godless, chaotic, meaningless, and absurd world. this is the reality, which no one but the strong must face, for the weak have no will to face it, and thus invent fables about a higher reality and a future life, such as is provided by the christian faith (nietzsche, 1924). in fact, nietzsche claims that modern civilized, mechanized or bourgeois society was decadent and enfeebled, it is a victim of excessive development of the rational faculties at the detriment or expense of will and instinct. against the liberal-rationalist stress on the intellect, nietzsche urged the recognition of the dark mysterious world of instinctual desires, which for him, are the true forces behind human life. he affirms that what the modern bourgeois society has succeeded in achieving was to smother the will with adesanya reviewing modern scientific knowledge … excessive intellectualizing, the result of which is the destruction of the freedom or spontaneity that sparks cultural creativity and ignites a zest for living. the critical and theoretical outlook of the modern time has for too long stifled the creative instincts that are the real forces behind human life. therefore, for man to realize his manifold potential, he must stop relying on the intellect and begin to nurture the instinctual roots of human existence. this, he expresses as follows: ―i have kept a close eye on the philosophers and read between their lines for long enough to say to myself: the greatest part of conscious thought must still be attributed to instinctive activity, and this is even the case for philosophical thought‖(nietzsche, 2002). traditionally, the ancient greek culture has been lauded for its rationality, for originating scientific and philosophical thought and for endeavoring to achieve balance, harmony, and moderation both in the arts and in ethics. this ancient greek culture with its overwhelming rationalistic thought system was given an unconventional interpretation by nietzsche. nietzsche chose to emphasize the emotional roots of greek culture with recourse to the ancient dionysian spirit ―that springs from the soil of myth and ritual, passion and frenzy, instinct and intuition, heroism and suffering.‖ for him, this dionysian spirit, rooted in the non-rational, was the source of and the force behind greek creativity in art and drama. this is what nietzsche means by the greek tragedy, which declined when serenity, clarity, order, structure, form, and cold calculation – the apollonian spirit predominated over noble ecstasy and creative intuition. greek tragedy, for nietzsche was killed by rationalism which is life-undermining. the rise of modern theoretical outlook of scientific thought which seeks to separate truth from myth, illusion, and error, nietzsche attributes to socrates. for him, this scientific outlook which began with socrates and attained its height in the hellenistic age during the time of alexandria, had the basis and set the foundation for modern culture. nietzsche claims that the modern westerner values the theoretical man and not the man of instinct and action! as such, they do not appreciate the creative potential and non-rational (irrational) side of human nature. nietzsche then claims that we are beginning to recognize and discover the limitations of science and the cognitive faculty itself or rationality. nietzsche talks about immanuel kant who has already giving reasons for us to doubt the capacity of the cognitive and rational apparatus to apprehend reality in itself, and then science‘s claim to the attainment of certainty. for kant, the senses or the human rational and perceptual apparatus are incapable of apprehending things as they are in themselves. 5. nietzsche as the initiator of post-modern thought-system postmodernism represents a united force of diverse intellectual currents with a unanimous desire to undermine all categories of thought and assumptions that are typical of the historical epoch of modernism. all attempts to seek universal standards of truth, beauty aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), and goodness are seen as not only futile but also restricting and tyrannizing. in place of the quest of certainty and validity common with modernism, postmodernist thinkers advocate the recognition of infinite differences and acceptance of uncertainty with regards to all knowledge. friedrich nietzsche is the philosopher who can be said to have ushered-in postmodernist orientation in philosophical history. nietzsche objects to all forms of system-building, universal standards of truth and morality. according to him: there are still harmless self-observers who believe in the existence of ―immediate certainties,‖ such as ―i think,‖ or the ―i will‖ that was schopenhauer‘s superstition: just as if knowledge had been given an object here to seize, stark naked, as a ―thingin-itself,‖ and no falsification took place from either the side of the object. but i will say this a hundred times: ―immediate certainty,‖ like ―absolute certainty‖ and the ―thing in itself‖ contains a contradictio in adjecto (contradiction in terms). for once and for all, we should free ourselves from the seduction of words!(nietzsche, 2002). nietzsche criticizes descartes‘ idea of the thinking self (ego) as being the basis for all human knowledge, while also repudiating the kantian idea of the ―thing in itself‖, which expresses some sort of objective knowledge that is to be sought after (nietzsche, 2002). for him, there is no immediate certainty that requires only the aid of reason to be grasped (just as we have it in descartes). any form of system-building presupposes lack of integrity. the rejection of absolute truth, objective knowledge, universal morality, and all forms of formalisms, brings us to the concept of nihilism in nietzsche‘s philosophy. 6. nihilism and irrationalism in nietzsche’s philosophy: a challenge to modern science as being hinted earlier in this paper, modern scientific thinking emphasizes the rational faculty of human cognition as being essential to the production of scientific knowledge, while disregarding other elements of human cognition, such as the ―will‖, instincts and impulses, as being unable to produce reliable and genuine knowledge. modern science is often projected to possess a rational image, which places emphasis on a fixed, universalisable and objective method of inquiry, devoid of uncritical presuppositions which are considered as products of irrational cognitive apparatuses of man, such as the ―will‖. however, friedrich nietzsche proposes an opposing view which contrasts the rational outlook of science, as being evident in his nihilistic and irrational reflections. nihilism is the extreme view that there is no justification for values. nietzsche was an ardent critic of commonplace ways of thinking about truth and knowledge, for him, all thinking is perspectival, there are no facts, all what we have are mere interpretations adesanya reviewing modern scientific knowledge … (nietzsche, 2002). this explains why he was interpreted as rejecting the idea of truth and knowledge altogether, and was considered as a radical epistemological and moral nihilist. yet, it can be said of nietzsche, that he manifested a passionate commitment to truthfulness, and made philosophical postulations which he himself supposed to have something like knowledge as their aim. ―zarathustra‖ speaks thus: i appeal to you, my brothers, remain true to the earth, and do not believe those who speak to you of otherworldly hopes! poisoners are they, whether they know it or not. despisers of life are they, decaying and poisoned themselves, of whom the earth is weary: so let them pass away! once sin against god was the greatest sin; but god died, and with him these sinners. to sin against the earth is now the most terrible sin, and to revere the entrails of the unknowable higher than the meaning of the earth!(nietzsche, 2010), p. 13-14. nietzsche considers those things which are beneath the human nature, such as intuition, blind strivings, emotions, feelings, impulses, as providing the most reliable source of understanding and knowledge that is required to achieve a fuller existence. in proclaiming the death of god, he expresses the demise of universal morality, while proposing something radical, like self-acclaimed values. nietzsche conceives human thoughts and actions as being constrained by values and at the same time clears the way for a new set of values which are constituent with human needs. systems of values, as well as all knowledge, are for him, a set of illusions. however, the implications of nietzsche‘s irrationalist views for the enterprise of modern science is that the underlying assumptions that are often devised in support the rational image of science are mostly misguided. the assumptions often used in support of the rational image of science include the views that scientific knowledge is the only form of reliable knowledge available to man, that science is the paradigm of rationality, that science is the sole model of truth, that science is entirely based on facts, that only reason can guide man to the apprehension of reliable knowledge and a plethora of others. all these underlying assumptions of modern scientific rationality are being faulted and ‗mocked‘ by friedrich nietzsche, who upholds the contention that genuine knowledge can only be derived from the more creative elements of human nature which are more indebt in man, such as the will, creative instincts, impulses, animalistic outbursts, and dark strivings (nietzsche, 2010). as fallout of nietzsche‘s irrationalist doctrines is the contention that the enterprise of science can be more comprehensive in terms of approach and method by acknowledging and adopting the irrational sources of human knowledge. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), it is therefore on the basis of the above analysis of the challenge posed by nietzsche‘s irrationalism to the enterprise of modern science that it is proposed in this paper that the assumption that science is based on fact and objective knowledge presupposes that the enterprise of science is methodologically handicapped, as it can only come to terms with the rational aspects of human cognition, while disregarding the efficacy of the irrational elements of man in the production of reliable knowledge. it will be of immense benefit to the enterprise of science if other non-rational sources of knowledge can be investigated and adopted veritable sources of reliable and scientific knowledge. moreover, the very idea of fact, which science claims to explain is under contention, due to the several numerous interpretations given to the idea in different cultural and methodological contexts (chalmers, 1999). 7. conclusion the basic assumptions that underlie scientific rationalism and the philosophical irrationalism of friedrich nietzsche have been extensively discussed in this paper, while also delving into a general analysis of the idea of philosophical irrationalism as a doctrine that upholds the irrational elements and sources of knowledge and human cognition, such as will, instincts, impulses and emotions. the scientific enterprise has been portrayed in this research work as a rational and objective enterprise, which bases its approach and methods on the principles of rationality. however, having given thorough considerations to nietzsche‘s contentions about the misguided assumptions underlying the rational image of science, which include the views that science is not the paradigm of rationality, that reason alone cannot serve as the only reliable source of knowledge, and that the irrational elements of human cognition are more efficacious in the apprehension of reliable knowledge; the paper thereby submits that the enterprise of modern science can be more comprehensive in terms of approach and method by incorporating the irrational sources of knowledge in its research programs. moreover, friedrich nietzsche has been discussed in this paper as being the harbinger of the post-modernist thought system, owing to his critique of all forms of system-building, universal standards and principles of rationality, and grand-theorizing. adesanya reviewing modern scientific knowledge … references ayer, a.j. (ed.) 1959. logical positivism. (new york: macmillan publishing co., inc. the free press). barret, w. 1962. the irrational man. (new york: doubleday anchor books edition). chalmers, a. 1999. what is this thing called science? 3 rd edition. (cambridge: hackett publishing company inc.). dilthey, w. 2002a. ―the delimitation of the human sciences‖. in selected works. vol. 3, pp. 91 97. wilhelm dilthey, ed. princeton: princeton university press. frankfurt, m. 1982 ―freedom of the will and the concept of a person”, in watson, g. (ed.), free will (oxford: o.u.p.) nagel, e. 1961. the structure of science, problems in the logic of scientific explanation. (new york: harcourt, brace & world, inc.). newton-smith, w. 2003. the rationality of science. (london: taylor & francis group). perry, m., an intellectual history of modern europe, baruch college, city, university of new york: george w. book, editorial associate. nietzsche, f. 1924. the antichrist. (2 nd ed.), translated by h.l. menchen (1918). new york: alfred a. knopf. 2002. beyond good and evil, cambridge texts in the history of philosophy, horstmann, r., norman, j. ed. trans. by norman, j. new york: cambridge university press. 2010. thus spoke zarathustra, chapko, b. ed. trans. by common, t. version 4.67. russell, b. 1945. history of western philosophy: united states, by american book-stratford press, inc., n.y. schlick, m. ―positivism and realism‖. in a.j. ayer, (ed.) logical positivism.(new york: macmillan publishing co., inc. the free press, 1959). stumpf, s.e. 2003. socrates to sartre and beyond-a history of philosophy. new york: mcgraw hill. 7 th ed. aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 an african philosopher: gbenga adeboye in focus olúkáyò òdé r. adésòuyì department of philosophy, adekunle ajasin university, akungba-akoko, ondo state, nigeria. abstract while researches, discussions and debates etc. about the ontological nature of african philosophy were evolving, destructive criticisms were more evident than constructive ones, even from africans. these ontological debates, especially in philosophical scholarship, have posed many questions thereby trying to relegate african philosophy to mere cultural thought system. some of the central objections are lack of individual figures to whom ideas could be attributed, and documentation. these objections are apparently against the traditional african thought, the raw data processed to become contemporary african philosophy, which seems to have taken care of the objections raised by some scholars. while considering works by african philosophers as sharp responses to the sceptics of african philosophy, there is the need to examine some works, although not done by trained philosophers, but whose works are philosophical. this paper, therefore, attempts to introduce and discuss gbenga adeboye's works within the context of philosophy. this endeavour is believed to expound some of his works and subject them to philosophical scrutiny. this paper argues, using the methods of analytic description. keywords: funwontan; ontological debate; african philosophy, funwontanism. introduction professor kolawole a. olu-owolabi, in his inaugural lecture titled my people perish for lack of philosophy delivered at the university, has identified two categories of philosophers; they are academic and non-academic philosophers (olu-owolabi, 2011: 3). by further understanding of this categorisation, it is easy to interpret that academic trained philosophers are individuals who have been trained with the philosophic rigour and they, in return, impact philosophic rigour as a method of training philosophy at, mostly, various philosophy departments across universities. non-academic philosophers are those who have no formal philosophic training, but whose works are considered philosophical. individuals under this category may have formal education, whereby they have had encounter with the teaching of philosophy or they have read works of philosophers. their encounter with these works would have inspired them to cause their works into existence. these works, upon reading and understanding and examination by philosophic minds, are discovered to possess philosophical ingredients. for instance, figures that are usually discussed under philosophic sagacity and nationalistic ideological philosophy of odera oruka did not have philosophic training. inasmuch as it is permissible to discuss many of these figures and their works, discussing the personality that is the subject209 matter of this present paper is equally permissible. this is an for africans to know themselves, and especially their intellectual heritage and content. this will serve the injunctive purpose of “african know thyself” (strickland, 2023: 160). this paper is an attempt to make a case for a broadcaster whose works are philosophical and who can be referred to as a 'philosopher'. it shall be argued in the paper that the title, 'philosopher' is not (and should not be) restricted to scholars who have undergone training strictly in philosophy. some of his works shall be referenced to show that they have some philosophical elements. although, this work commences researches on funwontan's philosophy, it should, however, be maintained that it is a continuous exercise. the paper shall conclude that adeboye is a philosopher in his own right with referent instances from some of his works. the man, 'gbenga adeboye philosophy is no longer an alien field of study in many nigerian institutions. african philosophy is taught and practised in these institutions of learning, bearing in mind its significance. in the teaching of african philosophy, attention is focused on the works of scholars who had their trainings in philosophy. it, however, neglects individuals who are either not academics or whose works are not within the scope of philosophy, but are philosophical. hence, the choice of this topic is to research on one of such individuals, 'gbenga adeboye, who, although, was an ace broadcaster, but whose works are perceived to be philosophical. elijah olugbenga adeboye was born in 1959 in oòd?òmu, osun state. although, he used to claim 'o òdéògbóòn' as his hometown because his mother was from gbò òngán; he would prefer to be referred to as an indigene of oòdéògbóòn, a new word formed from oòd?òmu and gbò òngán. he had both primary and secondary education at modákéòkéò, ife and ile-ife. he had a diploma in yorùbá from the university of lagos, akoka, lagos. he joined the broadcasting train in 1980 (adeboye, 2003a) and from that period he remained a household name in broadcasting for, especially people leaving in lagos, ibadan and abeokuta. people of other communities did not get to know of him until in the early 1990s when he had become an ace broadcaster and his records distributed, sold and aired on radio, and subsequently his video clips shown on television stations. he was popularly known as funwontan. he died precisely on april 30, 2003. his works remain in the mind of his listeners till date. this man would refer to himself as 'philosopher' in many of his works (adeboye, 1994; adeboye, 1996; adeboye, 1999a; adeboye 1999b; adeboye, 2003b). each listener with different intentions; when i first had interest in his works, it was not with the motive of studying him and, especially his works from the philosophical point of view. i was just an 'enjoyer' of his works. i developed interest and conceived the idea of researching on him when i was to write my b. a. long essay. the topic, however, was not approved on the ground that it would take my supervisor some months to listen to his works for adequate understanding. i resigned to fate and chose another topic. since then i had had in mind that i would be a scholar working extensively on funwontan. african philosophy: ontological debate revisited it is very obvious now that the debate about whether or not there is african philosophy exists has already been buried (adésòuyì, 2014: 83). the debate is, nevertheless, still mentioned especially when teaching undergraduate classes african 210 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june philosophy. teaching this, at least, at undergraduate level, shows that it is directly or indirectly still significant. each time teachers of african philosophy come before their students to introduce the course, they mention the way westerners have tormented africans in terms of scholarship, denying anything 'deniable'. as recalled by chinua achebe (2012: 38), in those days, when manuscripts were being sent, they usually did not see the favour of western publishing firms. there usually “were several of instant rejections” (achebe, 2012: 38). some would not even bother to read it, “jaundiced by their impression that a book with an african backdrop had no “marketability”” (achebe, 2012: 38). by marketability, apparently, what was meant was that these works produced by africans were not in line with their literary culture. one other issue raised by teachers is that even the western trained african philosophers have similar idea. bodunrin (1981: 161-179) is a typical example. these are the scholars olusegun oladipo (2000) refers to as the universalist. as earlier mentioned, the debate on the ontological status of african philosophy is often revisited. in a way, it serves as the introductory aspect of african philosophy. the argument has caused many 'positive' issues in teaching and practising african philosophy. for instance, it has generated into dividing african philosophy into schools of thought and periods (ogunmodede, 2001; uwala, 2004: 1-13). it is hoped and believed that the debate is gone finally as opined by moses makinde (2010: 437). it should be emphasized that, although the debate is gradually going into extinction, at least, in principle, some other important things are still to be discussed. one of such is who an african philosopher is. this is because african philosophy is now a full grown field as evident in various works. if argued that it is still in the making (wiredu, 1980: 86), then, the same can be said of other philosophies in the world, even those of the west. since philosophy will not be a static field, but a field whose existence is a continuous one; it is always in the process of becoming. if it is agreed in principle that the debate of whether or not african philosophy exists has gone into extinction, what is needed is to show those who are really african philosophers. the trio of sogolo (1988: 109-113), makinde (1988) and òkè (2002: 1935) have engaged themselves in rigorous arguments on this. all their attempts are to establish some important criteria for a person to be given the title african philosopher. it must be noted that the first foundation of their debate is oruka's (1981 and 1990) four trends in african philosophy. oruka (1981) started this through his analysis of the trends. given this, each of the trends tries to identify some philosophies and perhaps, philosophers that practise them. he identifies four as ethno-philosophy, philosophic sagacity, nationalistic ideological philosophy and professional philosophy. there is no controversy over the last two, except that the trio of sogolo (1988), makinde (1988), òkè (2002), and lately adésòuyì (2015) have responded to the question 'who is an african philosopher?', within the context of the fourth trend, professional philosophy/philosopher. oruka's analyses of the trends tend toward pushing forward the argument in favour of philosophic sagacity. he makes case for philosophic sagacity that has its foundation on ethno philosophy. by implication, the former is justified by the latter. in other words, the former is explainable in the light of the latter. sages, according to orukean school, are those who are knowledgeable in folk wisdom of community. they also try to reflect on them and bring out the ones that are compatible with reason. these sages are most likely not acquainted with western 211 adésòuyì an african philosopher: gbenga adeboye in focus civilization/education (oruka, 1991: 33-34). if this is correct, the implications are that one, there would not be any sage. although, it is not maintained that everybody is educated or influenced by western civilization, but from all indications majority of people, especially the upcoming ones are most likely going to be influenced by western civilisation. two, if it continues, philosophic sagacity suffers self-stultification. it is viewed that oruka's idea of this trend is not to allow this trend to suffer. since it is not in line with orukean school to allow this suffer a self-defeat rather to triumph, sages can still be found even among the educated ones. it is equally possible to see another version of philosophic sagacity. barry hallen (2002: 5-10) mentions some figures like hotep, zara yacoob and amo. amo was a trained philosopher. these individuals belonged to the ancient/pre-colonial period. can we identify some other people who are sages even within this contemporary period? of course yes. denying this is denying the possibility of having sages again, since it cannot be argued that sagacity is necessarily periodised, relativised or contextualised. one of the reasons why africans are denied of philosophy is lack of written documents. the question that comes to mind is 'must documents be necessarily written?' are there no other means to documentation? of course there are others. one of such is oral preservations. in those days, people would memorise so many things. it is discovered that access to any knowledge or information of those period was a difficult task. there was no chance for objectivity. there is an improved version of this which is recording of voices of this oral information. listening to these and reasoning out the important theme and understanding the philosophy inherent become easier. the objectivity is also well pronounced. in this regard, not only the initiates will understand what entails, but also non-initiates would also do as well. when the word 'philosophy' was invented, perhaps by pythagoras (preus, 2007: 1), it was not exclusively reserved for the westerners. to this, it will not be appropriate to deny some people this all important phenomenon. also it will not be appropriate to deny the works of some people as not philosophy work or that such work is not philosophical because it is not contained in written document. there could be other means of accessing and assessing works apart from printing. media has given that insight long ago. people have access to news and information on print or electronic media. this same set of people can also analyse works that are philosophical not through print alone, but also through electronic. in fact, it makes the analysis more convenient. it may be objected that analysis of such work becomes a pseudo-analysis. the possible reason that will be given is that rigorous philosophical works should be analysed on paper. of course, this may not be denied; what is only argued is that more people would have had access to the philosophical ideas of such a person if it had been thrown open. on the other hand, there is no such stipulation that says philosophical works must be necessarily 'papered'. the use of pen and paper is not a compulsory condition for practice of philosophy. their use is, nevertheless necessary. what is important is the arrangement and production of the ideas. hence, questions about means through which they are accessed and assessed should not have arisen. instead, concentration should be on the ideas being considered to see their philosophical imports. 212 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june introducing gbenga adeboye as an african philosopher it is not a thing of necessity to practise african philosophy the way others do; just like it is argued by african philosophers that it is not a must that african philosophy is practised, taught and done the way westerners do theirs. there has not been any paradigm standard of doing african philosophy. western trained african philosophers have only argued for this favourite because of their affinity with their mentors. they would not want to bite the fingers through which they had been fed. it, therefore, means that one would want to follow the tradition with which he is trained. one is not, however, obliged to do so, given the philosophical 'liberty' one has, although the liberty is not strictly total anyway. this is why gbenga adeboye falls into the category of a figure being considered as an african philosopher. no one is denying the fact that he has not had any training in philosophy. that he has not had any training in this field does not make him a nonphilosopher. one good example of adeboye in the history of philosophy is thales. no one can establish the fact that thales had any training in philosophy; yet his philosophy is first introduced to students in their first year in philosophy class, especially in the history of ancient greek philosophy. if thales can be qualified to be conferred with the title of philosopher, then, adeboye will also qualify as well. another example is obafemi awolowo, whose works have been treated as philosophical (makinde, 1988; òkè, 1988: 238-73, makinde, 2002). he was not trained a philosopher, but his works have been considered philosophical, and taught thus. adeboye's works are philosophical in their own ways. although, there seems to be many jokes in his works, there are numerous ideas that are thoughtful and reflective in those works. it may be argued that awolowo wrote books and these works of his are the ones read and analysed by scholars. gbenga adeboye has not written any book, but his works are in audio and video cassettes for people to listen to and analyse. in this regard, one can begin to see the similarity between books and these media gadgets. apart from the fact that they both are means of preservation, they can as well stand the test of time. a book has pages, with titles, year and place of publication. this is what serves as document for those who hold onto it. they may be in volumes like karl popper's the open society and its enemies, volumes 1 and 2, and other series of examples that one may think of. it may be reprinted, edited and re-edited. it has pages such that when reference is made to such a book, the page and other necessary things are quoted. can this be the same for electronic media gadgets? yes. electronic gadgets, like audio and video tapes have titles, year and place of production; there may be volumes. production and publication here mean the same thing. it, however, does not matter in which context it is used. each record can be quoted through time, minute and seconds. these represent the necessary and relevant documentations needed. if the record is divided into tracts, the tracts can be quoted, otherwise, the minutes will be quoted. this is now made easier with cd. this is helpful, if one considers the urgent need as opined by wande abimbola (1977: 9). gbenga adeboye has produced many works in his life time. knowledge is easy to gain, but wisdom is harder (hallen and sodipo, 1986). knowledge precedes wisdom; it is the accumulation of knowledge that becomes wisdom. anybody can claim to have knowledge, but not every knowledge claim becomes wisdom. in adeboye's works, there are categories of things, there can be found some ideas that are philosophical, and some that are not philosophical, but are mere jokes. in them, as well, there are many that are 213 adésòuyì an african philosopher: gbenga adeboye in focus jokes, but are philosophically impregnated. an instance is the “analogy/allegory of killing chicken” (adeboye, 2001: track 2, 05: 37-10:25) relevant in the contemporary social and political philosophy and relationship among relations. the analogy here is like an explication of a relationship between two siblings. the elder is privileged to send the younger an errand. adeboye presents a hypothetical case of one elder brother who asks his younger one to help him prepare chicken for meal. the ability or otherwise of the younger one to prepare the chicken properly for the meal should determine the possibility of the trust that should be reposed in him. in addition, his attitude towards this is also important. these should be the determining factors for anybody to occupy any public office, especially elective positions. an important point to note is that he must neither complain nor ask how it should be prepared. any attempt to ask how to prepare such disqualifies him from being a leader in any capacity. no doubt this should attract philosophical scrutiny, and this is why this instance and other similar impregnated philosophical ideas in his works are philosophical. there are some of his works that have existential significance (adeboye, 2001). in some other works, there evident elements of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics or moral philosophy, social and political philosophy, existentialism, philosophy of religion and to a reasonable extent, some forms of analysis and logicality. (adeboye, 1996a: 1; adeboye, 2001). there are numerous instances of his ideas that are philosophically impregnated. if asked what is his view, school of thought or philosophy, without disturbing one's brain, it is funwontanism, a view that can be interpreted to mean an all-encompassing phenomenon, a developing area in african philosophy that shall receive adequate attention in due course. conclusion it is still possible to deny that adeboye does not qualify to be referred to, and treated as, african philosopher. questions may be raised concerning the perspective from which his works can be viewed. there are, at least, four perspectives through which philosophy can be studied. they are historical, socio-cultural, etymological, and attitudinal. from all indications, any philosophy/philosophical work will fall within the confinement of any of these. hence, gbenga adeboye's works fall within the confinement of socio-cultural perspective. it must be borne in mind that the philosophy that is well understood and practised is that which is a product of one's culture, given the fact that every individual is a product of his/her culture. the purpose of this paper here is, of course, not enough to explore adeboye's works that are philosophical. it, therefore, means that researches and works are on-going to explore this from philosophical point of view. what has been done so far is to establish the fact that he is qualified to be african philosopher, even if he cannot be reckoned with in the universe of strict philosophers. it is to also note that it is not enough to jettison works of individuals that are neither in prints nor in books. we can take the rigour of listening to works through other means of documentation, as least, electronic gadget. when carefully listened to and examined, some of adeboye's works are philosophical. they contain elements of core branches of philosophy and, of course, some applied areas. 214 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june works cited abimbola, wande (1977), the study of yorùbá literature, inaugural lecture series 24, (ile-ife: university of ife press) achebe, chinua (2012), there was a country: a personal history of biafra, (new york: penguin books) adeboye, gbenga (1994), exposure, (lagos: funwontan records international) ------------(1995), ijinle oro lati ori ite mimo, (lagos: funwontan records international) ------------(1996), standup extravanganza 1, (lagos: funwontan records international) ------------(1999a), pasan oro, (lagos: funwontan records international) ------------(1999b), london yabis, (lagos: funwontan records international) ------------(2000), oro sunnukun 1, (lagos: funwontan records international) ------------(2001), oro sunnukun 2, (lagos: funwontan records international) ------------(2003a), asotele ii, (abeokuta: ayeni ventures ltd) ------------(2003b), pasi paaro, (lagos: funwontan records international) adésòuyì, olúkáyòòdé r. (2014), “cultural and social relevance of contemporary african philosophy” filosofia theoretica: journal of african philosophy, culture and religions, vol. 3, no. 1, 83-95 ------------(2015), “african art as bedrock of african philosophy” ujah: unizik journal of arts and humanities, vol. 16 no. 1, 108-121 bodunrin, p. o. (1981), “the question of african philosophy” philosophy, vol. 56, no. 216, 161-179 hallen, barry (2002), a short history of african philosophy, (bloomington and indianapolis: indiana university press) hallen, barry and sodipo, j. olubi (1986), knowledge, belief and witchcraft: analytic experiments in african philosophy, (london: ethnographica) makinde, moses. a. (1988), african philosophy, culture and traditional medicine, (athens: ohio university press) ------------(2002), awo as a philosopher, (ile ife: obafemi awolowo university press ltd) 215 adésòuyì an african philosopher: gbenga adeboye in focus ------------(2010), african philosophy: the demise of a controversy, second edition, (ile ife: obafemi awolowo university press ltd) nwala, t. u. (2004), “schools of thought in african philosophy: a critical review” uche, vol. 10, 1-13 ogunmodede, francis (2001), of history and historiography in african philosophy, (ibadan: hope publications ltd) òkè, m. (1988), “awolowo's metaphysics” in adewale thompson et al. (eds.), obafemi awolowo: the end of an era?, (ile-ife: obafemi awolowo university press ltd) -----------(2002), “modelling the contemporary african philosopher: kwasi wiredu in focus” in olusegun oladipo (ed.), the third way in african philosophy: essays in honour of kwasi wiredu, (ibadan: hope publications ltd), 19-35 oladipo, olusegun (2000), the idea of african philosophy: a critical study of the major orientations in contemporary african philosophy, third edition, (ibadan: hope publications ltd) olu-owolabi, k. a. (2011), my people perish for lack of philosophy, an inaugural lecture delivered at the university of ibadan, (ibadan: ibadan university press) oruka, odera h. (1990), trends in contemporary african philosophy, (nairobi: shirika publishers) ------------(ed.) (1991), sage philosophy: indigenous thinkers and modern debate in african philosophy, (nairobi: african centre for technology studies) ------------(1981), “four trends in african philosophy” in diemer, alwin (ed), philosophy, and the present situation of africa, (weisbaden: steiner erlagh) preus, anthony (2007), historical dictionary of ancient greek philosophy, (lanham: scearecrow press) strickland, lloyd (2023), “review: african philosophy: emancipation and practice by pascah mungwini” intellectus: the african journal of philosophy, vol. 1, no. 2, 159-161 sogolo, godwin. (1988), “african philosophers and african philosophy” second order: an african journal of philosophy, vol. 1, no. 1, jan., 109-113 wiredu, kwasi (1980), philosophy and an african culture, (cambridge: cambridge university press) 216 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 131 abstract in the history of mankind, every society has worked hard to bring about the best form of government that will help in bringing about the needed development, happiness and human flourishing; hence, varied forms of government such as monarchy, theocracy, aristocracy, autocracy and democracy have all been practiced at one time or the other by different societies. in modern times, the most desired form of government which has been adopted by different countries is democracy. it is very popular because it is fundamentally based on the principles of freedom and equality. these principles are metaphysical human values which the human spirit desires for flourishing and fulfillment in life. contrariwise, other forms of government can bring about economic, technological and infrastructural developments but cannot guarantee freedom and equality for all in the society. worthy of note is the fact that democracy cannot bring about the needed values the people desire when its basic principles are not strictly followed. this is the case with nigeria, where democracy is being practiced in theory but in actual fact totalitarian democracy which is characterized by expediency, transaction, thuggery, vote buying, a win it by all means syndrome, and a machiavellian pragmatic politics that leaves less to be desired. hence, this paper argues that nigeria's form of democracy is dysfunctional and has failed in meeting up with the desires of nigerians and there is an urgent need for a change to a new form of government which this paper calls ohacracy. ohacracy is a participatory and egalitarian form of government in igbo political administration. ohacracy will be based on the igbo town union governance structure. the critical analytic method of philosophy was used in this paper. keywords democracy, ohacracy, electoral violence, dysfunctional democracy, nigeria introduction the fundamental goals of every society are the happiness of its citizens, the internal wellbeing of the society and its development. these goals cannot be achieved without a exploring an alternative to nigeria's dysfunctional democracy eze, chima fidelis department of philosophy university of nigeria, nsukka enugu state & anthony chukwudi areji, ph.d department of philosophy university of nigeria, nsukka enugu state & jetty joe odey department of philosophy university of nigeria, nsukka enugu state 132 government that is formed and sustained by the people. by implication, a representative democratic government which is formed on the basis of merit, capacity, and competence of its leaders rather than on the basis of ethnicity, religion and elitists whims and caprices. it should be a government that is responsive to the plights and challenges of the citizens of the state rather than a passive, reactionary and non-proactive government. a type of government that can bring about the human flourishing of its citizens must be a government that can be held accountable by a strong civil society and the general populace and not one that gags the press which is the fourth estate realm of the society. it should be a government that promotes strong and independent state institutions rather than a government that specializes in the destruction, weakening and capturing of state institutions. it should be a government that promotes the rule of law rather than the laws of strong men. it should be a government that promotes judicial independence and its efficiency. unfortunately, nigerian democratic government is only famous for all the bad things that work against the will and the common good of the people which democracy stands for and this has been the basic reasons for the monumental failure of democracy in nigeria. it is on the basis of this that ohacracy which is an egalitarian and participatory political form of government of the igbo people comes in as an alternative form of government to the nigerian form of democracy. ohacracy promotes consensus among members, mutual respect, dialogue, accountability, transparency, justice, peace, brotherhood, equity, fair play, oneness, love, and unity. these are ethical values and principles that are conspicuously absent in nigerian democratic system. conceptualization of democracy the idea of democracy is one that has varied definitions and as such different political theorists in ancient and contemporary time have provided different definitions and descriptions of the concept in order to capture the essence of the concept democracy. one of the most popular definitions of the concept democracy is the one given by the former great american president, abraham lincoln, on november 19th, 1863 “gettysburg address”. he defines democracy as the “government of the people, by the people and for the people” richard a. epstein, p. 819. kolawole (2004) holds that democracy is not the lack of military rule nor is essentially the presence of civilian officers; rather it is the state of affairs whereby political actors and institutions of state are equipped with values and norms of democracy. it is on this note that the impact of democracy has seep into all the aspects of society and governance p. 49-60. according to franceschet, democracy is characterized by three fundamental necessities absence of violence, political participation and control, and equality in the political sphere (franceschet, 2009). diamond et al. 1990 define democracy as a form of government that meets three essential conditions meaningful and extensive competition among individual and groups, especially political parties, for all effective positions of government power, at regular intervals and excluding the use of force, a highly inclusive level of political participation in the selection of leaders and policies, at least through regular and fair election, such that no major (adult) social group is aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june excluded; and a level of civil and political liberties; freedom of expression, freedom of the press, freedom to form and join organizationssufficient to ensure the integrity of political competition and participation (p. 6-7). fundamentally, democracy is a system that aids public participation and basic human rights. for baron de montesquieu, democracy is a form of government by which the people are the sovereign and should have the power of choosing their senators, ministers as well as their judges. furthermore, suffrage and voting laws are very essential montesquieu, p. 53. according to appodorai, democracy is the system either of government under which the people put into effect governmental power directly or indirectly via representatives elected by them (appodorai, 1975). in arguing against this view, schumpeter made a rare polemical attack on the latent implications of the eighteenth century definition of democracy which avers that “the democratic method is that institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions which realizes the common good by making the people itself decide issues through the election of individuals who are to assemble in order to carry out its will”schumpeter, p. 260. according to schumpeter, this definition makes certain untenable assumptions: first, that there is a known “common good” that we all agree on which delimits good and bad. schumpeter argues that there do not exist a common good that all can be brought to see through rational argument. even those with good intentions can disagree on what is best for society. second, even if we could agree on a common good (ends), we would be unable to agree on the means. “'health' might be desired by all, yet people would still disagree on vaccination and vasectomy”schumpeter, p. 252. third, those using this definition tended to come from a utilitarian perspective, such that the common good is that which is best for each individual. however, this view does not allow the people to express its will about the common good, but rather makes an assumption about what form that “will” should “naturally” take. in the second part of schumpeter's arguments, he avers that letting go of the assumption of utilitarianism as the common good requires assuming that each citizen is independently rational, able to sort good facts from misleading impressions, and swiftly/exactly form opinions. the value set of every citizen would be fully formed, not a sheer set of “vague impulses.” in such a society, one person's opinion would be just as good as another's. government by the people is not necessarily better at being government for the people than other forms of governance can be. having rejected the eighteen century definition of democracy, schumpeter went ahead to give his procedural theory of democracy. according to schumpeter in part i of his effort to define his type of democracy pointed out clearly that in classical theory each citizen has a rational opinion about every issue. each citizen votes for a representative to carry out his opinion. consequently, choosing a representative is “secondary.” schumpeter's new theory reverses these roles: “the democratic method is that institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for the people's vote”schumpeter, p. 269. 133 eze, areji, & odey exploring an alternative to nigeria's dysfunctional democracy history of democracy in nigeria democratic practice began formally in nigeria in 1960 immediately after the independence of nigeria. however, this democratic experience was cut short by the military coup that took place in 1966 and afterward civil war broke in 1967 and came to an end in 1970. the next opportunity for nigerians to experience democratic government was in 1979. unfortunately, in four years time the military struck again in 1983. the military rule was sustained till 1993 when there was an interim government that was meant to lead to a proper democratic government; after that a fatal cancellation of the democratic election that took place in 1993 happened. this time around the military took over power till 1993 when nigeria transitioned from military rule to a democratic government. the current nigerian constitution came into formal use at the beginning of th the 4 republic democratic rule in 1999 adelekan and ashibi, 2020, p. 262. for twenty four years of continued democratic practice in nigeria, from 1999 till date what are the significant impacts has the democratic government brought about happiness, internal wellbeing, and needed development can nigeria be properly rated as successful democratic country an attempt will be made in the next paragraph to examine nigerian brand of democracy and its failures so far. nigeria's dysfunctional brand of democracy the concept democracy has universal meaning and idea because it is founded fundamentally on the principles of freedom and equality but it is particular to every country that practices it due to their own peculiarities. this can be seen in terms of how political power is achieved and public institutions function. on this note, there are different forms of qualifications of each country's form of democracy such as portuguese democracy, american democracy, french democracy, german democracy, south african democracy; etc. nigeria also has its form of democracy which is founded on religious and ethnic politics; incompetent and squanderer leadership; electoral fraud; and severe poverty and high level illiteracy ajayi and ojo, 2014, p. 107. some of these social ills have been responsible for the failure in our democratic system, for instance, corruption. nigeria is one of the major countries in the world where politics is more profitable than private sector businesses. hence, this, accounts for the rationale behind unhindered corruption that has become a dominating business in nigeria's political system. it is a serious contribution to the failure of democracy in nigeria. apart from corruption which is a major cause of democratic failure in nigeria, electoral fraud and violence are contributing factors as well. for a democratic government to do well the process that brings political officers into power has to be good if not excellent. in other words, every democratic government is as good as the processes that brought it into power. in nigeria, elections have been marred by serious election violence over time limiting the country from producing credible leaders. according to enojo (2010) electoral violence has been part of nigerian democratic process since independence (p. 89). anifowose and babawale (2003) aver that the 2003 general elections were rigged by the influential people in power (p. 64). rawlence and albinlacey (2007) depict nigerian elections as stolen 'rights' based on the fact that they were marred by bizarre show of rigging and bullying of voters in several areas around the 134 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june country(p. 1-2). the situation was not better in 2023. describing the 2023 general elections, the renowned author chimamanda adichie 2023 calls it in her open letter, nigeria's hollow democracy. in this letter to president joe biden of the united states of america, she described how electoral fraud and violence marred the 2023 general elections and asked mr. biden not to congratulate the president elect because if he does he would be validating the criminality termed free and fair thelections that were held on the 25 of february 2023 adichie. to further explore the success or failure of nigerian democratic system of government one has to evaluate the country's democratic practices based on the principles of equality and freedom. john rawls' principle of equality clearly describes equality appropriately when he asserts that each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme of liberties for othersjohn rawls, 1971, p. 52. it is correct to emphasize that there is no country in the world where democracy is practiced that its citizens are literally equal, but one thing is clear, in serious democracies like the united states of america, equality before the law is taken seriously. for instance, the former president donald j. trump indictment on a 34 felony charge and subsequent trial shows that no one is above the law in the united states of america jonah, protess, et al., 2023. this kind of thing cannot happen in nigeria. in nigeria, the principle of egalitarianism is more theoretical and less practical and this can be seen in the monumental and dangerously disastrous socio-economic and political inequality that characterizes nigerian form of democracy. this has led to an astronomical huge gap between those who have access to power and public funds and those who do not. since democracy is said to be government of the people by the people and for the people, it is therefore generally assumed that democracy is the most suitable form of government ajayi and ojo, 2014. this is based on the fact that it is not just a form of government that seeks to bring about the attainment of the will and common good of the people but it is the form of government that promises the achievement of the intangible and metaphysical values the human spirit desires in order for man to express, develop and be whatever he thinks or imagines is possible within the ambit of the law. these values are freedom and equality. while this may be so in some democracies, the reverse is the case in others: while democracy is synonymous with holistic development and aggregated growth in some climes; it is the representation of betrayal and inhuman deprivation in others. nigeria probably personifies the latter. while some countries aspire to and do indeed practise democracy for the socio-economic benefit of the generality of the people or at least as many people as possible; others, like nigeria, make their own brand of democracy government of the few by the few and for the socio-economic benefit of the few. indeed, the most outstanding feature of nigerian democracy is mind boggling and unpardonable waste of public funds on the comfort of a few nigerians. the democracy of waste practised in nigeria invests, first and foremost, in the comfort of officials rather than in human and material resources ajayi and ojo, 2014. 135 eze, areji, & odey exploring an alternative to nigeria's dysfunctional democracy this accounts for the widening gap between the rich and the poor in nigeria. the inequality gap is made worse due to the government failure to provide functional infrastructures, efficient healthcare system, functional educational sector, healthy economic sector, efficient and proactive security architecture and functional and independent public institutions. according to ngozi et al. 2020, nigeria still lags behind in development indices such as poverty reduction, employment generation, effective healthcare delivery and level of corruptionp. 72. the fact is that, the politicians and top ranking public servants who have access to public funds embezzle the general wealth of the nation which is meant to develop the country for the benefit of all rather than the benefit of the few rich ones odey, et al 2022, p.7. they steal so much public fund to the extent that they weaponize poverty in the citizens in order to keep the poor people perpetually poor for their selfish gains which include depriving them the opportunity to hold public offices and for them to be used for all criminal activities such as election violence and rigging. on the principle of freedom which is foundational to democracy, top democratic countries that practice democracy in its truest sense, take human freedom seriously alongside the responsibility that goes with it. people have what in the nigerian constitution is referred to as fundamental human rights which includes the right to life, dignity of the human person, personal liberty, fair hearing, private and family life, freedom of expression, and free press, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, freedom of movement, peaceful assembly and association, freedom from discrimination, right to acquire and own immovable property constitution of the federal republic of nigeria, 1999, chapter iv, 33-40 and others. these fundamental human rights pointed out above demonstrate clearly the principles of equality and freedom but these human rights cannot be implemented if the rule of law is not put into full operation in nigeria. the question is, is the rule of law fully operational in nigerian democratic system the answer is no. the reason is because, since the rule of law which is meant to maintain the observance of the principles of equality and freedom is not fully operational in the country where injustice and violation of the fundamental human rights have been made to reign supreme. this, clearly demonstrates that nigerian brand of democracy is dysfunctional and has failed. hence, there is urgent need for an alternative model or system of government which should be a participatory igbo political model of government referred to as ohacracy. ohacracy as an alternative model of government and leadership the social political system of government of the igbo people which is deeply rooted in their culture, sustained by their customs, norms, values and language is termed as ohacracy. ohacracy is people oriented government whereby power belongs to the people and the people are the sovereign. ohacracy as defined by iroegbu is the practical conception of societal order and governance in which the communities determine the praxis of the socio-political life of the people while taking into account basic individual and group peculiarities (iroegbu, 1997). 136 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june by this definition, ohacracy is an active participation of all responsible igbo persons in the polity which promotes the common good and the common goal in their existential life so that they can define and establish themselves and stand out as human in the society. ohacracy is expressed as a process by which the collective will of the people determines their existence in the community. this form of government has the feature of the spirit of belongingness which is founded on african communalism; hence, there is need for a brief description of belongingness in order to deepen the meaning of ohacracy as an igbo political system of government. the concept of belongingness is fundamental in the understanding of african communalism. it is a theory of justice that promotes the active role of the community and the individual in the society. as ejenam, s. 2007 avers, belongingness is a principle of membership applied to a given political community. it is what moulds a community's cultural, historical, and traditional values (p. 391). iroegbu asserts that it is both a terminus ad quo and a terminus ad quem. this means that it is very fundamental such that we cannot speak of social justice in africa without it. belongingness makes all members real and participating members of the community. it gives all a sense of belongingonebunne & alike, 2017, p. 95. as a matter of fact, there is nothing that exists that is not part of reality, which by implication belongs to something or a particular reality. we are part of a group in order to be able to offer our own quota to the common good of all. without this act of belonging particularly in a political community there will be no participation. belongingness, however, outshines these existential facts of every communal function. this idea of belongingness is obvious in john donne's poem: no man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main….any man's death diminishes me, because i am involved in mankind, and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls, it tolls for theeonebunne & alike, 2017, p. 95. onebunne and alike 2017 aver that belongingness is, therefore, a fundamental quality in understanding whatever is. nothing can be understood in terms of its completeness but in its political relation to other realities, defining itself through other beings. everything is defined by a relation, that is, a thing or being is in relation to something, or with an attribute of engaging in somethingp. 95. consequently, our identity lies in belonging to a group. belongingness identifies realities as such. our nature is in belonging. its role is in belonging. its mode and operations are in belonging. belongingness, as such, is the ontological value of living. by belongingness, being is related to other beings by relationship of what it is or doesonebunne & alike, 2017, p. 96. the political value of ohacracy ohacracy is characterized by belongingness and belongingness is founded in african communalism. and in african communalism everyone carries out actions that are tantamount to favouring everyone in the community. it is based on african communalism that the leadership model of ohacracy is derived. ohacracy works based on the customs, culture and values of the igbo people. igbo culture like any other african culture is full of symbols and symbolism. for instance, ofo in igbo culture is the symbol of authority, and it plays major roles in ohacracy. ofo does not only symbolize authority, it does symbolize truthfulness as well. hence, anyone who upholds ofo should as a matter 137 eze, areji, & odey exploring an alternative to nigeria's dysfunctional democracy of necessity and duty promote justice at all times. alike avers that symbolism derives its power from the fact that it speaks not only of reflective intelligence but to the entire human psyche. it arouses deep emotional experience, releases hidden energies in the soul, gives meaning and stability to the personality, establishes strong loyalties and disposes a man for consistent and committed actions. symbols in igbo land can be seen in igba-afa (divination), morning kola ritual, ichiozo (title taking), bride price ceremony, masquerade ceremonies, etc. alike, 2016). it is based on this importance of symbol that njoku 2009 holds that ofo is an authoritative emblem symbolizing justice, righteousness, and truth p. 37. also, ohacracy is a form of government of the people that is known for consensus for the good of everybody, which is embedded in unity, love and progress therefore “igwe-bu-ike,” meaning unity is strength onebunne & alike, 2017, p. 97. this can also be seen in the work “njiko ka mma” meaning staying together is better than being alone which is the theory of communalism as wellonebunne & alike, 2017, p. 98. ohacracy is also characterized by promoting integrity and as such it is made up of people with proven integrity. it consists of representatives from every family, kindred or even village as far as the person is a man of honour, of good reputation, peace loving, articulate and clever. this makes representatives to be trust worthy to do their work. this is complete opposite of what obtains in the western form of democracy practiced in nigeria whereby their representatives do not have the moral will to serve. most of them lack the interiority and competence to function efficiently. ohacracy is a leadership model that promotes servant leadership style. that is, a bottom to the top leadership approach that makes everyone to consider themselves as servants and not leaders who are in government of their own people to serve the same people. in ohacracy, the igbo people hold that spirit beings such as chiukwu (supreme god), alusi (deity), earth goddess -ala play outstanding roles as well. they function in the order of hierarchy in order to assist human beings or men in the community to attain their goals individually and collectively particularly in bringing about peace when there are challenges and disagreements in the societyonebunne & alike, 2017, p. 98. ohacracy as a leadership model promotes equal rights, respect of views of other people and encourages active participation of the people. this means it allows for collective participation whereby everyone freely and willingly participate in the decision making process and work as a team in order to attain a common goal for both themselves and the larger community. as regards transparency, sustainability and accountability, ohacracy is sustainable based on norms, morals, and laws of the land. all the members or representatives as a matter of obligation and duty are meant to obey the laws of the land and this determines who can be part of the ohacracy government. furthermore, ohacracy is founded on justice for all and sundry. the word for justice in igbo is nkedirionye which is giving one his or her due. the igbo concept of justice holds that in egbe bere ugo bere, nke si ibeya ebena, nku kwaa ya. this means let the kite perch, and eagle perch, any that says let the other not perch, let its wing go into piecesonebunne & alike, 2017, p. 98. ohacracy is an 138 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june igbo social political form of government and leadership model which is an integral part of the igbo culture and as such it is sustained using the igbo language. the igbo language is the fundamental means of communication and expressing themselves, and as such they define their culture through their language. onebunne and alike 2016 support this view when they assert that language is culture specific and culture dependent that has social relevance. it facilitates inter-personal relationship in the community, it is spoken and that is why it is part of man, culture and the community in which he finds himself(p.3). based on the characteristics of unity, brotherhood, consensus and communal life of belongingness possessed by ohacracy as a system of government it is ranked high above nigeria's brand of dysfunctional democracy because it is the most sincere and incorrupt form of participatory governmentonebunne & alike, 2017, p. 99. furthermore, it promotes transparency and accountability. the selection processes of representatives in the government is based on character, competence and capacity of the individual and at any point the individual deviates from these ethics of good conducts that were considered before his selection, the person will immediately be withdrawn from the government. based on this, members are committed, hardworking, principled and proactive in doing their jobs to avoid disgrace and expulsion. this is unlike the nigerian democratic party primary processes of electing members that will represent the party. the later is transactional and after the contestants buy their way into becoming candidates of their parties they disarm the members from holding them accountable adelekan and ashibi, 2020. for this reason, ohacracy is the best form of government that nigeria needs to make efforts to adopt at this critical time in nigeria's history since nigeria's form of democracy is dysfunctional and has failed in every aspect of human life. however, since ohacracy was predominantly practiced in an era in traditional igbo culture when population size was much less and the society was not as complex as it is now, it will be challenging to practice it completely as it was practiced then. for this reason, there is need for ohacracy to adopt the current igbo town union governance structures that are efficiently working in dealing with social and economic inequalities and infrastructural deficits in igbo towns and communities. put differently, notwithstanding the great qualities of ohacracy, its biggest challenge in this contemporary society is population growth and size. the society is now bigger than what it used to be in the traditional igbo society and has become more complex due to crosscultural, political, religious, urbanization, migration, trade, and technological influences. it will be challenging to practice ohacracy the way the igbo people practiced it in traditional igbo society. consequently, there is need for it to be based on the modern town union governance structure in igbo land. town union governance structure in igbo land the town union government is a principal element in community and rural development. it is an instrument of self help approach to community development in the post-colonial epoch. membership is by birth, marriage, parental origin or adoption obiakor and okoreaffia, 2021, p.370. people who have resided in a particular town for 10 years or more and have accepted the norms and rules guiding the operation of the union and the town are eligible to become admitted into the union. this allows for inclusivity, 139 eze, areji, & odey exploring an alternative to nigeria's dysfunctional democracy justice, participation, diversity, innovation, equity and farness. the union is a rational association of individuals who in spite of their class difference consider themselves as equals. the town union governance system is founded on the principles of the rule of law and not blinded by religious and ethnic sentiments. the interest of the group is both mutual and broad based. members help their fellow members and at the same time they focus on the big issues of bridging the gap between the government and the people by identifying areas of failures in governance by solving social and economic problems of the community and town obiakor and okoreaffia, 2021, p. 369. they also aid in rallying the people of the town for meaningful development of the town as regards infrastructures. the governance structure of town unions in igbo land allows for transparency, accountability, serious punitive measures to put erring members in check obiakor and okoreaffia, 2021, p. 370. all these qualities which the igbo town unions possess that make them effective rural and community development body in this contemporary era can help to fill in the gap of the laps of ohacracy as an effective participatory governance model. conclusion ohacracy is a system of government organized in a systematic way by constituting membership of men of integrity, capacity and competence from families and kindred. it is maintained through the ethical values and norms of the society. it promotes high level of accountability from members. it is the most sincere, incorruptible and people centered participatory and representative form of government. ohacracy is characteristically peaceful, secure and non-violent form of representative government that is more efficient and better than the current nigeria's form of democracy that has failed in all indices of a developing country. on this note, nigeria's dysfunctional form of democracy needs to be immediately replaced with ohacracy. it is peaceful and stable form of government that promotes the principles of justice, equity, fair play, oneness, brotherhood, love and unityonebunne & alike, 2017, p. 98 which will ensure that it does not fail like the nigeria's form of democracy that is bedeviled by all forms of evil. nigeria's brand of democracy creates class distinction and disunity which results in all forms of injustice, however, ohacracy gives an individual the capacity to be a vital part of the community as well as a part of the political community which makes it better than nigeria's form of democracy. all these important values inherent in the practice of ohacracy make it the best form of government for nigeria at this critical moment in our history that is bedeviled by bad form of government and leadership. put differently, ohacracy as a form of government which is devoid of wrangling and all other forms of evil associated with political activities in nigerian democratic space remains the best form of government for nigeria if adopted. it will be practiced by adopting the current igbo town union governance system which has been very efficient and effective in bringing about social and economic development in igbo towns and communities. 140 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june references appadorai, a. (1975). the substance of politics, new delhi, oxford university press. a d i c h i e , c h i m a m a n d a . n i g e r i a ' s h o l l o w d e m o c r a c y https//www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/04/nigerias-hollowdemocracy/673647/ alike, m.n. (2016). kant's metaphysics and an african metaphysics: a comparative analysis. unpublished ph.d. dissertation, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka. adelekan, akeem tunde & d. e. ashibi. 2020. impediments to democracy in nigeria and the way forward. nigerian journal of social studies, xxiii(1), 262. ajayi, adeyinka theresa and ojo, emmanuel oladipo. 2014. democracy in nigeria: practice, problems and prospects. developing country studies, 42, 107-125. bromwich, jonah e., protess ben, et al. the case against donald trump what comes next april 5, 2023. https//www.nytimes.com/article/trump-indictmentcriminalcharges.html constitution of the federal republic of nigeria, 1999, chapter iv, 33-40. diamond, l., linz, j.j. and lipset, s.m. (1990). politics in developing countries, lynne rienner publishers. egbue, ngozi. g., nwankwo, ignatius uche, okpan, o. samuel. 2014. democracy, development and livelihoods, democracy, development and livelihoods in nigeria: problems and prospects. the nigerian journal of sociology and anthropology, 141, 72. doi: 10.36108/njsa/6102/14(0150) ejenam, s (2007). relevance of pantaleon iroegbu's communalism in our times in i.h. odimegwu (ed), perspectives in african communalism, canada: trafford publishing. franceschet, a. (2009). democratic ethics: an introduction in fraceschet; a. (eds), the ethics of global governance. london, lymnne rienner publishers. 21-28. iroegbu, p. (1997). african vicious triangles: a plea for ohacracy, the socio-political lee way. louvain: catholic university of louvain. kolawole d. (2004). the struggle for democratic consolidation in a post-colonial state in agagu, a. and ola, f. (eds), development agenda of the nigerian state. ibadan flag (nigeria) publishers. 49-60. montesquieu, de baron. 1777. the spirit of the laws. london t. evans. njoku, francis o.c. (2009). igbo jurisprudence: an african exercise in legal coherencies. new jersey glasborogh. 141 eze, areji, & odey exploring an alternative to nigeria's dysfunctional democracy odey jetty joe i, areji anthony c., eze chima fidelis, adejoh florence eke. 2022. thomas pogge on global justice implications for the nigerian state. sapientia journal of philosophy. 17, 1-12. obiakor, nwachukwu j. and okoreaffia suuny o. 2021. town union governments and community development in igboland: the amakofia ututu case, 1979-2015, international scholars journal of arts and social science research (isjassr), 34, 365-388. onebunne, j.i. and alike, m.n. (2016). strong advocacy of igbo as a mother tongue and instructional language for our children at kindergarten and lower basics: a methodological pedagogy for effective teaching and proper learning in igbo language and culture a globalization. this was originally published in igbo language. onebunne, jude ifeanyichukwu and alike, mirian ngozi. 2017. ohazurume as ohacracy and democracy: a critical analysis of the convergence of the igbo and graecomordern political leadership systems, nnadiebube journal of philosophy, 1, (1), 90-100. rawls, john 1971. a theory of justice. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. richard, a. epstein. (2011). direct democracy: government of the people, by the people, and for the people, harvard journal of law and public policy. schumpeter, joseph. 1942. capitalism, socialism and democracy. new york: harper. 142 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 abstract this work examined the relevance of philosophy to commercial viability concerns that play out in the academe. logic is the tool of philosophy and philosophy is a humanities discipline. the humanities disciplines have come under a great deal of pressure and are wrongly regarded as pursuits that are incapable of addressing real life problems. in nigeria for instance, with academic institutions being increasingly underfunded and a growing insistence on the commercial viability of research, it is clear that any research that cannot be converted into short term market-based applications are not regarded as useful. the humanities disciplines, of which philosophy is a part, appear to be at the receiving end of the growing skepticism about the value of university education. the path this work followed was to first elucidate the metaphor of the marketplace. secondly the work looked into the nature of logic and acknowledged the service role it plays in philosophy. the final point which is the conclusion and recommendation of this paper was to state ways that logic and philosophy generally can equip the learner with useful skills that are still relevant, even if our educational concerns get narrowed down to market instrumentality. the skills this research focused on were those that can translate into cognitive, emotional and imaginative intelligence for the learner. keywords: critical thinking, education, globalization, humanities, logic, philosophy, skill introduction before the turn of this twenty first century, several factors had started to raise concerns about the relevance and utility of courses of study on the university curricula. included among those factors were government's dwindling resources and the dictates of the international monetary fund and world bank, necessitating de-regulation and privatization of government establishments, and the demands of globalization. deregulation and privatization had to do with governments putting their hands off provision of certain goods and services and opening the door for private sector participation in the provision goods and services previously reserved exclusively for governments. this opened up the job-markets. however, no sooner had these circumstances played out that it became clear that universities and other higher institutions of learning were turning out 20 the philosopher in the marketplace: the relevance of logic to commercial viability demands in the academe darty emmanuel darty ph.d department of philosophy university of uyo, uyo – nigeria & aniekan ubong ekefre department of philosophy university of uyo, uyo – nigeria far more graduates than the job-markets could absorb. this ushered in what pai obanya (2012) calls 'the acceleration of history' which has brought some evolutionary imperatives on higher education as dictated by the peculiar requirements of life in the twenty first century. such peculiar requirements have to do with adaptability to accelerated changes, the predominance of ict and socio-economic uncertainty. this has posed serious survival challenges for higher education. as obanya has observed, to remain afloat in a world that the market has become the standard for allocating resources, institutions of higher learning have to: i) transform from ivory towers to social laboratories. ii) respond effectively to the demands of the world of work of a knowledge economy. iii) compete forcefully with other competent structures for the generation and application of knowledge (obanya 2012:12) while 'ivory towers' are often pictured as giving over-specialized knowledge that may be disconnected from practical concerns of everyday life, those that graduate from her are required in the world of work to be down to earth, in tune with, and providing solutions in the practical concerns of everyday life. thus while the model of an ivory tower is supposed to give knowledge for its own sake, there is a growing demand that higher institutions should serve as social laboratories that offer knowledge for the sake of utility and applicability to societal challenges. in a country like nigeria where the prevalent societal challenge appears to be economic in nature, there is the widespread belief that to be useful, education should enable one to climb the economic ladder. these circumstances reveal that market forces and considerations have crept into the ivory towers and in the opinion of michael santos such market forces cannot be ignored (santos 2020:7). there is a widening gulf between the skill set that graduates of institutions of higher learning have and the requirements of the world of work. such requirements place a strong premium on skills, required by a knowledge-based economy. programmes of study offered by the faculties of arts or humanities appear to come under greater pressure than other courses of study with respect to economic viability demands. today's philosophy graduate does not find placement in a job easy at all. we could take a clue from those of them who came back from their national youth service. when asked about their primary assignment, the usual answer is that they are sent to teach 'government' or 'civics' in secondary schools because it is assumed that nothing relevant to philosophy is offered in secondary schools. this work responds to that assumption by arguing that the service role of logic is indispensable even if our model of knowledge is narrowed down to economic and instrumentalist considerations. logic is important if the expectations of employers revolve around the cultivation of skills in critical thinking, analytical reasoning, problem solving and excellent communication. before establishing this point it is necessary to have a shared understanding of circumstances that have variously been seen to imply that there is some crisis in the humanities. crisis in the humanities and the metaphor of the marketplace in a very recent report, justin weinberg (2023, para. 1) states that academic programmes in philosophy, theology and religion studies, history and so on at 21 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june marymount university, virginia in the united states of america would all be eliminated if a proposal from the administration is approved by the school's board of trustees. the reason for the proposed closing down of these academic programs is so that the university can focus on 'areas of growth'. the unhidden implication here is that the blacklisted humanities programmes are not considered to be 'areas of growth'. in our age, with the growing dominance of technology in the global economy, budgetary cutbacks have compelled academic institutions world-wide to prioritize what they see as 'useful subjects' for gainful employment upon graduation; and those 'useful subjects' do not include the humanities subjects but are generally restricted to the stem (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) subjects. this has created the impression, as don a. habibi reports, that the humanities are impractical and unimportant (habibi, 2016:3). paul keen (2014:76) reports that: in 2010, the government of england decided to cancel funding for the teaching of humanities programmes in english universities, because those programmes did not satisfy the 'impact' criteria established by the new research excellence framework; while in canada in 2012, the federal government slashed seven million dollars ($7m) off the sshrc (social sciences and humanities research council) funding; and in 2013, the university of alberta announced that it had suspended admission into 20 humanities programmes. these developments have raised a grave alarm as to the future of the humanities in the global north. there are indications that it may just be a matter of time before marketplace demands catch up with the teaching of humanities in the global south. it may be somewhat comforting to find that african scholars and researchers are not sitting by idly until the humanities are completely swallowed up by global, technological and market forces. now, as philosophers, researchers and scholars, practitioners of the humanities at our levels, it is not as if we are untouched by and unaware of the mounting pressures on our disciplines – pressures to show our relevance and what we can contribute in concrete terms to our economy. the fact remains that regardless of how one looks at it, the need still remains to equip our graduates with marketable skills. or else in the near future, our programs stand at the risk of becoming under-subscribed and underfunded; hence face extinction. as cited by michael santos (2020:6), research has demonstrated that university disciplines must do at least one of three things to draw the support of university administrators: to be successful, a discipline must either (i) be devoted to the study of money; or (ii) be capable of attracting serious research money; or (iii) demonstrably promise that the graduates will make significant amounts of money. the university study of the humanities is thought to score zero on each count. the fact that humanities enrollments are declining merely shows that departments are failing in the vocational market place. students are voting intelligently with their feet. 22 darty emmanuel the philosopher in the marketplace: the relevance of logic... it is a fact that parents and sponsors of education want their children and wards to get employment after completing their education. this is a far more critical issue in a country like nigeria, where the network of relations is far more essential than it is in other cultures. parents who have devoted their lives and earnings to train their children rightly expect those children to contribute to their welfare once they are grown up. how can devotees of the humanities, philosophers and logicians convince such parents and their children that humanities disciplines like philosophy and it's essential tool of logic are worthy of their attention? how can humanities disciplines prevent prospecting students from voting against humanities programmes 'with their feet'? it is poor comfort, nevertheless a fact, that if the job markets are closing up, they are closing up for graduates from all disciplines, not only for those graduating from philosophy and the other humanities disciplines. we have known graduates with degrees in law, economics, engineering, business administration and others who have gone round looking for jobs, and finding none. the same thing applies to many with degrees in education. but it seems correct to say that no reasonable person would argue that since the job markets are closing for graduates, all university programs should close down except for those that can guarantee jobs immediately upon graduation. how can the humanities, philosophy and more specifically, the discipline of logic respond to the challenge of the un-employability of graduates of higher education? it is true that the world of work has been questioning the preparedness of institutions of higher learning to equip learners with employability skills that will make them suitably adapted to the demands of economically productive functions. such demands have to do with effective communication, team work, problem-solving initiative, learning, adaptability and so on. it is the position of this work that these requirements can be cultivated and enhanced with the study of logic. the questions to be addressed now are: what is logic? ; what is philosophy? what is the relationship between the two? the nature of philosophy and the service-role of logic philosophers see themselves as 'lovers of wisdom' because they explore fundamental questions about the world and human existence. in their search for wisdom, they are not content to rely on answers to their questions already provided by myths, superstitions, beliefs, popular opinions and religious as well as cultural traditions. philosophers continue to ponder on the basic questions about the universe and humankind's place in it. philosophers are aware of answers to their questions that have been provided by common sense and secular authority. but they are also aware that such answers can be partially or even entirely mistaken. this is why they seek answers based on reason and experience having at the back of their minds that every proposed answer to a philosophical question is tentative and subject to debate. this is why we find an array of schools of thought as proposed answers to any issue of philosophical interest. in fact as pointed out by some scholars, the value of philosophizing lies not so much in the theories it produces as in the very activity of seeking wisdom itself (russell, 1979:161; christensen, 1999: 1). philosophy is basically one of the core humanities disciplines that deal with reality, knowledge and values. the branch of philosophy that deals with reality is called metaphysics and philosophers working in that domain are confronted with timeless 23 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june questions like the problem of being; change and permanence; appearance and reality; the mind-body problem and many other problems that have led to several schools of thought, each attempting to address either the problem itself or a proposed solution to the problem. the branch of philosophy that deals with knowledge is called epistemology. here the basic question revolves around the possibility, certainty, extent, justification and limitations of human knowledge. again, and just like in metaphysics, we are here confronted with many schools of thought like skepticism, rationalism, empiricism, foundationalism, and coherentism to mention but a few. a learner may be alarmed at the fact that he or she needs to be exposed to so many schools of thought even when dealing with a very specific issue. the truth is that since philosophy is characterized by a breakaway from superstitious, mythical and dogmatic explanations to phenomena, it encourages much diversity and the free exercise of human reason in tackling problems rather than enforcing a sort of conformity that closes the mind from speculation. the third branch of philosophy is axiology which deals with values. here we have two sister disciplines of ethics and aesthetics. while aesthetics deals with what is beautiful and valuable in nature and works of art, ethics deals with what is good and valuable in human conduct. in ethics for instance, we are confronted with several schools of thought like hedonism, eudaimonism egoism, altruism, utilitarianism and so on, each interested in setting out the moral standard that we can use in appraising human conduct. this is why some also refer to ethics as moral philosophy, because it is interested in what makes and action right or wrong. philosophy is parasitic in nature. it looks carefully into the claims, methods, presuppositions, assumptions and conclusions of other disciplines. this quality is responsible for its conception as a second-order discipline. while every discipline in a college for instance is interested in transmitting a body of facts regarded as 'knowledge' to the learner, they take for granted and never ask the question of what knowledge is in the first place. only epistemology, as a branch of philosophy is interested in the question of what human knowledge is. it is of primary importance to settle the question of what knowledge is before moving on to the question of how it can be transmitted. the issues and questions that the philosopher deals with are basic and foundational. for instance, every individual appears to have a certain conception of reality. if one was on his or her way to campus, and could read the inscription on a tricycle or lorry that says 'no condition is permanent' that inscription mirrors and is loaded with a certain conception of reality. is there anything that is permanent in the world or are things constantly changing? if one attempts to give rational justifications for the view that things are permanent or that things are changing, then such a person is already in the domain of metaphysics. the natural scientist dealing with matter in his laboratory; the theologian talking about the existence of god, deities and spirits; even the physician trying to unravel the cause of the ill health of a patient; the laboratory attendant studying the reaction of microscopic forms of existence and so on, are all dealing with being, reality and existence, only that they never ponder on what being is and the nature of reality in the first place. this is why for anyim and ekefre (2023:1) “even individuals who have not had formal exposure to academic philosophy have also been concerned with philosophical issues”. it can be safely stated that the core branches of philosophy are metaphysics, epistemology and axiology. what then is the place of logic? 24 darty emmanuel the philosopher in the marketplace: the relevance of logic... it is safer to state that logic is the tool with which philosophy is done. in other words, logic plays an important service role in all branches of philosophy. an overview of the definitions that have been offered for logic will shed some light on its central concerns. for patrick hurley (2008:1) “logic can be defined as an organized body of knowledge or science that evaluates arguments”. a look at the definition offered above reveals that logic is concerned with 'arguments'. what 'argument' means in logic is different from the meaning it takes on in everyday communication. in its everyday usage, 'argument' can be used to describe a slight disagreement, a verbal fight, a heated dispute, a serious quarrel or an open confrontation. this is not what 'argument' means in the context of any logical investigation (darty, 2019:78). when conceived technically as the rational exercise of giving reasons in support of a conclusion, it becomes clear that a greater part of human communications on a daily basis contain arguments (esikot and darty, 2023: 69). today with the extensive specialization within all areas of the academia, it is possible for individual philosophers to have trouble understanding the research of other philosophers even in their academic departments. however, in so far as philosophy is concerned with rational justification and argumentation, logic forms the cord that connects epistemology, metaphysics and axiology. logic is presupposed in any philosophical discourse or better still, philosophers use logic. because of this service role, logic is better seen as a tool in our best efforts to share meaning. it is because of the indispensability of logic as the tool of philosophy which in turn is a humanities discipline that makes habibi (2016:3) to observe that “the fields of the humanities are the fertile grounds for developing critical thinking skills and becoming better decision makers”. logic plays an important role in the cultivation of skills. the question is: how can these skills be useful in responding to the requirements of the marketplace? how logic can be made useful in the marketplace it has been shown previously that 'market-place' considerations have become benchmarks for disciplines to enjoy the support of university administrators, governments, sponsors of education and even students themselves. today, stake holders in education are recognizing the need to be deliberate and intentional about the cultivation of skill sets that are suitably adapted to social existence. knowledge is not just sought for knowledge's sake. seeking knowledge for its own sake is a luxury, especially in contexts where opportunities for economic survival and social existence are slim. with marketplace considerations coming to the fore, the image of institutions of learning as social laboratories is quickly replacing that of the ivory tower, where the philosopher could be stuck in speculative system building, insulated from the daily struggle for living. this problem of marketplace demands being brought on philosophy is not a recent problem. if we consider socrates and the sophists as model educators, it would be realized that socrates did not charge any fees from those he taught and was materially poor. the sophists on the other hand enjoyed good followership and their classes were not free so they were not poor (darty, 2015:83). so even before the existence of the bretton woods institutions, there have always been pressures on philosophic knowledge to be useful for economic purposes. this raises the question of what roles logic or philosophy generally can play in the marketplace. 25 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june if prospecting students sign up for courses that can give them the guarantee of a meal ticket, it appears that it is only when the chain from production to consumption is complete and huge profits have been made, that other priorities can be met. given this portrayal, learners who hope to be 'successful' have to carefully study facts and signals that indicate how benefits from their academic pursuits can be optimized. learners who succeed must be flexible, adaptable and must respond effectively to economic events. there is the demand for the integration of university learning with life realities. these requirements are captured in such expressions as 'social sense skills', 'street sense', 'the world out there' 'the world of work' and so on. these expressions re-emphasize the point that the contemporary higher education should prepare the learner for interaction with the environment, including specifically the economic environment. it is through such an interaction that opportunities can be created that can address issues of employability and stmarketability. the 21 century world of work places great premium on personal qualities as opposed to qualifications. there is a tripartite set of skills that define the knowledgeable person that fits into the demands of the knowledge economy, namely hard skills that have to do with cognitive intelligence, soft skills that have to do with emotional intelligence and go-getting skills that have to do with imaginative intelligence. how does logic enhance each of these in the learner? cognitive science is the study of cognitive intelligence. in response to the question: what can logic contribute to cognitive science? alistair isaac and jakub szymanik (2010:279) have this to say: in the early days of cognitive science, logic was taken to play both a descriptive and a normative role in theories of intelligent behavior. descriptively, human beings were taken to be fundamentally logical, or rational. normatively, logic was taken to define rational behavior and thus to provide a starting point for the artificial reproduction of intelligence. both positions were soon challenged. as it turns out, however, logic continues to be at the forefront of conceptual tools in cognitive science. rather than defeating the relevance of logic, the challenges posed by cognitive science have inspired logicians to enrich the repertoire of logical tools for analyzing reason, computation, and communication. what this implies is that logic is indispensable for the cultivation of cognitive intelligence. this is why logic is considered to be an essential preliminary of higher education. the point is that logic is not an end in itself, but a means or instrument for getting the mind to acquire and retain knowledge in any branch of the humanities or sciences. arthur luce (1968:i) says of logic that, “it will help you to detect a bad argument and leave you with a mature, critical faculty and a standpoint of your own. not only your thinking, but your speaking and writing should benefit. they should gain in clarity, precision and firmness”. hence logic is essential for the cultivation of hard skills that have to do with cognitive intelligence like self-expression skills, logical reasoning skills and computational skills. if one only acquires cognitive intelligence or 'hard skills' without soft skills that have to do with emotional intelligence then such a learner is not one that is well-prepared 26 darty emmanuel the philosopher in the marketplace: the relevance of logic... to participate in a knowledge economy. a book learned person should also be someone whose behavior meets social and ethical standards in a knowledge community. present day requirements of work place a great premium on personal qualities, not only on qualifications. before now, the 'logical' was often pitched against the 'emotional'. that is why maria roman and vasile roman (2017:275) observe that “in ancient greece it was thought that logic was superior to feelings because people could agree to rational arguments but they usually did not agree with feelings…the recently introduced concept of emotional intelligence (ei) offers a new way of looking at the debate – that people can reason on the emotions and that they can use emotions to help reasoning”. nowadays, it can be safely stated that a person's ability to perceive, identify and manage emotions represents the basis for the quality of social relations and emotional competencies, which are important elements for the success the workplace. how logic enhances emotional intelligence is that in consistently identifying correct from incorrect reasoning and in sticking with the forms as a basis for validity one would have cultivated character formation skills, intrapersonal as well as interpersonal skills that are useful for understanding and 'teaming up' with others. as the tool of reasoning, logic plays a role in both to the ability to achieve correct reasoning about emotions and the ability to use emotions and emotional knowledge in order to improve thinking. the next type of skill that is necessary in meeting marketplace demands have to do with go-getting skills that function with imaginative intelligence. at this stage, personal qualities are put into creative use for the benefit of the individual and the society. creative thinking skills have to do with thinking out of the box, ideational fluency which has to do with the proclivity towards generating novel ideas and opportunity-perceiving and grabbing skills. though creativity may be impulsive, and varied to learners, logic is still necessary to further enhance it. this is why richard paul (1993:19) states that: all intellectual products in order to be intellectually assessed and validated require some logic, some order or coherence, some intellectual structure that makes sense and is rationally defensible. a product of intellectual work that makes no sense, that cannot be rationally analyzed or assessed and cannot be incorporated into other intellectual work or used, and hence cannot play a role in any academic tradition or discipline is unintelligible. whether we are designing a new screw driver, figuring out how to deal with our children's misbehavior or working out a perspective on religion, we must order our meanings into a system of meanings that makes sense to us, and so in that respect, have a logic. what this means is that logic plays a significant role in enhancing the skill of imaginative or creative intelligence. obanya (2012:1) is of the opinion that courses of study become useful mainly when they serve as tools for transforming students along the tripartite lines of cognitive, emotional and imaginative intelligence. logic has already been shown to be a tool more than any other traditional branch of philosophy. its instrumental conception is self-evident. the traditional learning that encourages the storage and reproduction of facts, figures, theorems, principles and axioms in examinations without an attempt to 27 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june develop other perspectives of skills would always produce unemployable graduates who do not qualify as knowledge workers as required in a knowledge economy. a logic-based problem-solving approach is what prepares the learner and challenges him or her to be economically productive in order to fill the needs observable in the marketplace of his environment. cognitive intelligence arms the learner with basic tools; emotional intelligence and ensures the optimal use of such tools in a social environment like a work place and even where there is no workplace, imaginative intelligence equips the learner to create one since it has to do with the novelty of perceiving economic opportunities in the 'marketplace'. martha nussbaum (2010:2) has observed that radical changes are occurring in what societies teach the young, and these changes have not been well thought through. she notes that “the humanities and arts are being cut away, in virtually every nation of the world… seen by policy-makers as useless frills, at a time when nations must cut always all useless things in order to stay competitive in the global market”. it must be admitted that this situation is a reaction to an old order which is the ivory tower model of education. the term 'ivory tower' is often used to describe a world where academics or intellectuals engage in knowledge generation through research and knowledge transmission through teaching in a manner that appears to be disconnected from the practical concerns of daily life. the idea of the 'ivory tower' as such, elicits some pejorative interpretation today because it tends to model a willful disconnect from the realities of daily life. it is seen to pursue researches that are over-specialized and academically elitist. this disconnect from the 'world out there' which is the marketplace is what widens the gulf between products of higher education and employability requirements. in response to this situation, this research has argued that the humanities disciplines should look inwards in order to see how to equip her devotees with the sort of skills required in a knowledge economy. conclusion even if educational policies are fashioned to pursue short-term profit by the cultivation of the useful and highly applied skills suited to profit-making, the humanities disciplines are very rich in terms of skills that are relevant to cognitive, emotional and imaginative intelligence. this research focused on logic as a tool can be optimally useful in this regard. as richard paul has stated “if we can continually help each student to become a more judicious critic of the nature and quality of his or her thought, we have done all we can do to make likely both the critical and creative development of each student” (1993:32). with the tool of logic being deployed in equipping the mind with hard, soft and go-getting skills, the philosopher can be suitably adapted to the demands and requirements of today's marketplace. 28 darty emmanuel the philosopher in the marketplace: the relevance of logic... references anyim, nwachukwu and aniekan ekefre (2023) “general overview” in philosophy, logic and human existence, edited by idorenyin esikot and iks nwankwor, uyo: robertminder. christensen, kit (1999) philosophy and choice. california: mayfield publishing company. darty, darty emmanuel. (2019) “arguments in ethics”, argument and evidence: a nd multidisciplinary approach. 2 edition, edited by udo etuk and chris ijiomah, uyo: inela ventures and publishers ltd. darty, darty emmanuel and idorenyin f. esikot (2023) “philosophy and informal logic”. philosophy, logic and human existence, edited by idorenyin esikot and iks nwankwor, uyo: robertminder. p. darty, darty emmanuel. (2015) “a second look at the death of socrates”, sapientia journal of philosophy vol. 5, 2015. sthabibi, don. (2016) “the indispensability of the humanities for the 21 century”. humanities vol. 5 no.11 p. 1-23 hurley, patrick (2008) a concise introduction to logic. belmont: thomson and wadsworth. isaac, alistair and jakub szymanik (2010) “logic in cognitive science: bridging the gap between symbolic and connectionist paradigms” ” journal of the indian council of philosophical research (2). keen, paul. (2014) “imagining what we know: the humanities in a utilitarian age”. humanities vol. 3. luce, arthur aston (1968) teach yourself logic. new york: association press. nussbaum, martha (2010) not for profit: why democracy needs the humanities. princeton: princeton university press. st obanya, pai. (2012) “21 century higher education in nigeria and skills acquisition: the thissue of curriculum”. 26 convocation lecture of the university of calabar, calabar: university of calabar press. paul, richard. (1993) “the logic of creative and critical thinking”. american b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n t i s t , vo l . 3 7 n o . 1 , r e t r i e v e d f r o m : https://www.criticalthinking.org on 3/2/2023. roman, maria and vasile roman (2017) “emotional intelligence – what is it and why does it matter?” international journal of communication research vol. 7, issue 4. russell, bertrand (1979) the problems of philosophy. oxford: oxford university press. santos, michael (2020) a radical proposal to reinvigorate the teaching of the liberal arts, lanham: rowman and littlefield. weinberg, justin. (2023, february 17) “philosophy and other humanities threatened at marymount”, daily nous. retrieved from: dailynous.com/2 on february 23, 2023. 29 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 119 abstract the bluest eyes depicts the tragic condition of blacks in racist america. it examines how the ideologies perpetuated by the dominant groups and adopted by the marginal groups influence the identity of the black people. due to the colour of their skins, blacks are always subject to different types of disrespect and insecurity in their society. the intention of this work is to analyze how the concepts of identity and race are portrayed in the novel, and how they relate to issues of white beauty standards, self-loathing and racial pride. du bios created a kind of new trend of dealing with african-american culture by inventing the concept known as “double consciousness”, and arguing that these black people were trapped between dual personalities. meanwhile, the concept of beauty is an example of cultural institution; hence, the standard of beauty is based on the dominant group, so there is the white beauty standard—light skinned, blue eyes, blonde, slim body image—as the hegemonic practice that is consciously alive in the african americans society involved in the story. anchoring on the theory of double consciousness proposed by w. e.b. dubois, the study aims at the idea that the african american must navigate the voyages of life from within a form of “two-ness”, because he is both man, and black. therefore, the implications are that white beauty standard hegemony has led to the emergence of intra-racial discrimination happening within the african american society as it is reflected in the literary work due to the characters' efforts to seek white's approval. the second is the emergence of the self-loathing upon the characters, and the third is they try to obliterate their heritage. eventually like pecola breedlove, the child protagonist, who yearns for blue eyes, has no recourse except madness. keywords: hegemony, marginalisation, double consciousness, identity, self-loathing introduction toni morrison, the first black women nobel prize and pulitzer prize winner, in her first novel, the bluest eyes depicts the tragic condition of blacks in racist america. morrison manages to portray the lives of black people, especially their life experiences in societies that still deal with racism issues. the bluest eye presents a more complicated portrait of racism. the chain reaction resulting from the american culture of the 1930s is what morrison is trying to exploit. internalized racism is found in this work and is loosely defined as the internalization by people of racist attitudes towards members of their own ethnic group, including themselves. this includes the belief in ethnic stereotypes relating to their own group. internalized racist attitudes in individuals, present barriers towards self-worth and the effects of double consciousness: toni morrison's the bluest eyes chinyere t. ojiakor, ph.d madonna university okija, anambra state. 120 achievement of racial equality, as somebody with internalized racism may believe that they are inferior to people of other ethnic groups. the 'black is beautiful' cultural movement fights the internalized racism experienced by african americans specifically with regard to beauty standards. morrison uses pecola's story to represent the product of this cultural hardship. insight on her thoughts and actions allow us to see how these social prejudices influence the life of african americans. morrison's main goal is to emphasize on the psychological effect racism had on african americans. since the origins of african-american culture, white americans have used and exploited black people, all while appropriating black culture. kendrick lamar exemplifies the polarization existing between cultures when he writes, “you hate my people, your plan is to terminate my culture/ you're fuckin' evil i want you to recognize that i'm a proud monkey” (27-28). “my culture” illustrates the disparity existing between blacks and whites, demonstrating a clear “them” and “us” relationship existing in the united states. this divide causes african-americans to feel used and underappreciated, all the while, their culture is repetitively stolen and adopted by the white community. as the author points out in the afterword of the novel, the political climate of the united states was one of agitation, turmoil and great upheaval in the lives of african americans when she wrote the bluest eyes. it was actually the peak of the “black is beautiful” movement and morrison started to think why the movement is needed. in byers thomas, “why although reviled by others, could this beauty not be taken for granted within the community?” (76-84) the characters in the novel show exactly why such a movement was needed. all of the characters value themselves according to their degree of blackness. some of them even experience self-contempt and self-loathing because they are considered too black. yet, others like geraldine live their whole lives keeping up appearances. the thought of separating the lighter skinned blacks consumes geraldine. all of it stems from letting others determine one's value. morrision is using one atypical africanamerican family to demonstrate what the effects could be of this phenomenon. she has deliberately created an extreme situation to prove a point. all the characters are affected to some degree, but pecola succumbs to the difficulties she is facing. that was deliberate. morrision wanted to show how the most unprotected member of society would be affected. in dalsgaard katrine, morrison says, “i focused, therefore, on how something so grotesque as the demonization of an entire race could take root inside the most delicate member of society, a child; the most vulnerable member; a female” (233-48). blue eyes are a metaphor that is understood. when pecola wants blue eyes, she is really saying that she wants to escape her life and her double consciousness. she has defined herself only by her degree of blackness. pecola and her family regard being dark skinned as synonymous with being ugly. at only eleven years of age the solution pecola can find regarding her feeling of inferiority and worthlessness is acquiring the symbol of beauty in her community. blue eyes are regarded as beautiful by all the characters, including mothers and children who unanimously admire shirley temple. pecola is in a desperate situation. she is black and not appreciated by her family. she is subjected to neglect and sexual abuse. in the surrounding community, she is subjected to intra-racism both by grown-up and her peers. all these add up and pecola is becoming more and more obsessed with her wish for blues eyes. this wish is made because she wants to escape her life of becoming something she is not. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june 121 when she is raped by her father and becomes pregnant by him, she goes insane and starts to imagine that she has actually got blue eyes. theoretical paradigm in the souls of black folks, what w.e.b. du bois termed “of our spiritual strivings,” is a point of view of how it feels to be the problem? african americans have to put up a veil and be compelled to live a double life. the theory of double consciousness is the idea that the african american must navigate the voyages of life from within a form of “two-ness” (2), because he is both man, and black. the novel the bluest eyes constitutes toni morrison's most ambitious engagement with the dialogic of race in america. morrison's work is more often preoccupied with, in significant measure, the internality of black life in america, even though she is always aware of the white presence at its fringes that can impinge at any time – as is so patently obvious in beloved (as sethe flees from southern slavery) and, as a haunting pathology (the desire for a white physiognomy) in the bluest eyes. whereas race is undoubtedly the dominant trope of the nobel laureate's oeuvre, novels such as beloved, song of solomon, and the bluest eyes makes this patently clear. toni morrison's first novel, the bluest eyes, was written during the 1960s and published in 1970. through several layers of voices and different narrative techniques, the book tells us according to byers thomas “the shocking story of a black little girl named pecola breedlove, who descends into madness after being emotionally and physically abused on several occasions by the entire community around her, even–and especially–by her family” (76-84). this study focuses on double consciousness and its devastating effects on pecola. double consciousness is a term coined by w.e.b. dubois in his the souls of black folks. he describes it as, “a peculiar sensation, this double consciousness, this sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity”(2). the bluest eyes opened with an anecdote of dick and jane to show how racism destroys the mental stability of black people. it equates whites with success and happiness while blacks with poverty and unhappiness. this traumatises the minds of blacks and they begin to dislike their own heritage and skin colour in the white world of dick and jane. in the bluest eyes and in another novel paradise, toni morrison has created two thoroughly racialized communities. both communities are crippled by racism but in different ways. in the bluest eyes, morrison has created a dualistic tale of the oppressors and the oppressed. the novel illustrates how the racism which exists within the african american community can be seen as an effect of the oppression and racism its members has been subjected by the whites. the racism, oppression and marginalisation have corroded the characters' self-esteem and sense of self-worth. most of the african american portrayed feel contempt for their own blackness. when toni morrison began her novel, song of solomon, she introduces her readers to a world in which caucasian americans have full power over their african american neighbours. detailing the pessimistic treatment of african americans, readers come to believe in the stereotypical “weak, black man,” of african americans who allow themselves to be dominated, who see the dangers that are forced upon them and bow down to them, obliging to the torture and prejudice they face every day. morrison believes and shows us through her writing that african americans acted one way when around white people in order to avoid trouble and a different way ojiakor self-worth and the effects of double consciousness: toni... when around blacks. now, through the stories of pecola and the people who surround her, the bluest eyes brings to discussion matters such as race, identity, and raises questions on racial self-loathing, the menace of white beauty standards, and the african people's double consciousness. there are two kinds of stigmas in the novel opines jerome bump regarding the character of pecola, the first one as “the bodily stigma of ugliness and femininity” and the second one as “the tribal stigma of being an african american” (156). my intention with this work is to analyze how concepts of identity in relation to race are manifested in the novel, how the book can be read as a claim for racial pride, and to show the tragic influence of being both african-american and at the same time ugly in order to make the reader align with the blacks. understanding a character's inherent personality needs close examination of his/her behaviour and the world's reaction and response to their actions. regarding pecola, there are many parts of the novel which unveil her true personality. first off, it is necessary to study the first reference of the novel which creates a strange impression in the reader's mind. at the point when the mother informs claudia and frieda that they would soon have a guest whose situation is different from theirs: “mama had told us two days earlier that a “case” was coming” (16). here by referring to the “case”, a picture of a strange person would be shaped in the reader's mind, and this would spark the first attitude toward black people in the novel. not even calling her name when introducing her to the children, mother of macteer family snows it is somehow abominable that pecola is similar to her own children. black people are considered by whites as savages. they see blacks are totally different from other people with different lifestyles. this specific point is clear when the narrator compares them to birds, “propertied black people spent all their energies, all their love, on their nests. like frenzied, desperate birds, they over decorate everything” (18). this study imputes the issue of parenting as one of the foremost problem in the culture of the afro-american. according to andrea o' reilly, attitude, issue of motherhood is central in studying africanamerican culture. how a mother treats her children and the whole family is of great significance. in macteer's family, there is a mutual love and care between family members that keeps them united while in breedlove's family; there is a specific segregation and desolation between family members, especially regarding pecola's mother, pauline. she is more enthusiastic to work outside than showing affectionate care and attention toward her family. picola is so fearful of different persons or situations, so she is being teased easily by the people around her. she is deprived of her mother's affectionate love, and the result is her inability to resist any kind of oppression and injustice imposed on her by the society. another pivotal aspect in studying african-american culture according to o'reilly is that “mothers and mothering are what make possible the physical and psychological wellbeing and empowerment of african-american people and the larger africanamerican culture” (4). eleven-year pecola lives with her family in lorain, ohio. when her father, cholly, burns down their house, she spends some days with the macteer family. claudia, the youngest macteer, is one of the narrators who tells us pecola's story. in the years covered by the narrative, 1940 and 1941, the breedlove girl is constantly bullied and 122 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june mistreated by teachers, classmates, neighbours and family. because she thinks of herself as ugly, she attributes their mistreatment of her to her physical appearance, as she believes that no one would behave badly in front of her if she were beautiful. one of the most traumatizing events in pecola's life is the moment when she is raped by her father, gets pregnant and loses her sanity. by telling her story, claudia is trying to make sense of everything that happened to the youngest breedlove and to their community. toni morrison's purpose of depicting macteer's and breedlove's family was to show how atmosphere of the house and parents' behaviour would shape and affect children's future. because pecola is disconnected from her family especially her mother, she does not consider herself as a mature woman and also a mother in the near future, but only imagines how it would be different if she were a girl with blue eyes, “it had occurred to pecola some time ago that if her eyes, those eyes that held the pictures, and knew the sightsif those eyes of hers were different, that is to say, beautiful, she herself would be different” (46). another is the notion of white god in breedlove family. breedlove family are not satisfied with their lives. all the family members identify themselves with white americans and yearn for their luxurious way of life. the blatant and tangible comparison between breedlove and white american family is described in the novel which would clarify this point. in o'reily, pecola, pauline, and cholly breedlove fall victim to their failure to transcend the imposing definition of 'the other's' look. reduced to a state of objectness (thingness), each remains frozen in a world of being-for-the-other and consequently lives a life of shame, alienation, self-hatred and inevitable destruction (50). this specific kind of feeling in poor africanamerican families especially breedlove is clear when morrison describes their austere situation of life in the novel: “they lived there because they were black and poor and they stayed there because they believed they were ugly” (38). or in another part of the novel, when the narrator refers to god who has created these black creatures: “ it was as though some mysterious all-knowing master had given each one a cloak of ugliness to wear, and they had each accepted it without question”(39). by bringing the word “master”, it might refer to god who has intentionally created them with black skin and made them to live under such inequality. to look at another aspect of the situation, a specific point which can be elicited from the above passage is that god and the angels are white who give their blessings to white people and abandoned all those non-whites to live with their own vigour. this specific notion of white god is also described in the novel when cholly, pecola's father, describes his love of black devil: “god was a nice old white man, with long white hair” (134). so black people believe that all kinds of disrespect and ignorance which they bear in their life are rooted from god's own will that made the whites to be emancipated and do whatever they want. that's why cholly does not follow morality in his life and religious sanctum, which eventually led to his sexual relationship with his own daughter. the bluest eyes explores the tragedy of oppression and internalized racism. it examines the tragic effects of imposing white, middle-class american ideals of beauty on the 123 ojiakor self-worth and the effects of double consciousness: toni... developing female identity of a young african american girl during the early 1940s. hills collins in her book black feminist thought: knowledge, consciousness and the politics of empowerment, notes that, “portraying the range of ways that african-american women experience internalized oppression has been a prominent theme in black women's writing” (43). inspired by a conversation morrison once had with an elementary school classmate who wished for blue eyes, the novel poignantly shows the psychological devastation of a young black girl, pecola breedlove, who searches for love and acceptance in a world that denies and devalues people of her own race. morrison says that, the origin of the novel lay in conversation i had with a childhood friend. we had just started elementary school. she said she wanted blue eyes. i looked around to picture her with them and was violently repelled by what i imagined she would look like if she had her wish. the sorrow in her voice seemed to call for sympathy, and i faked it for her, but, astonished by the desecration she proposed, “i got mad at her instead.” (270) african-american history starts in the 16th century, with peoples from west africa forcibly taken as slaves to spanish america, and in the 17th century with west african slaves taken to english colonies in north america. after the founding of the united states, black people continued to be enslaved, and the last four million black slaves were only liberated after the civil war in 1865. due to notions of white supremacy, they were treated as second-class citizens. the naturalization act of 1790 limited u.s. citizenship to whites only, and only white men of property could vote. these circumstances were changed by reconstruction, development of the black community, participation in the great military conflicts of the united states, the elimination of racial segregation, and the civil rights movement which sought political and social freedom. in 2008, barack obama became the first african american to be elected president of the united states. before being an industrial country, america is agricultural country which has enormous farming land that should be farmed. because of that, america takes many immigrants from africa and india to work at their enormous farming land. slavery in america started in 1619, when a dutch ship brought 20 african slaves ashore in the british colony of jamestown, virginia. they worked as farmers in america, farming land. they planted cotton and tobacco. the success of cotton and tobacco plantation improved the great number of immigrants. throughout the 17th century, european settlers in north america turned to african slaves as a cheaper, more plentiful labour source than indentured servants, who were mostly poorer europeans. racism is one of dominant discrimination in the united states. this is because of the black people's position as minority and the history of their race. they were discriminated against because they came from slavery. then occurs some prejudice based on the physical appearance and characteristics toward their behaviour. this condition made it hard for them to live normally and get some opportunities. neelam bhardwaj's paper entitled ―”the bluest eyes: a tragedy of oppression and internalized racism”, talks about the life of african-american women that had been affected by racism, sexism and classicism. it says that black women are also victimised not only on the basis of races and sex but also badly treated by class exploitations which is 124 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june the greatest oppression of blacks in america. in this way, black women suffered from the double disadvantage of racial discrimination and gender bias. the paper also explores the tragedy of the oppression or violation of children, especially poor children and she explores a problem specific to groups targeted by racism, that of internalized racism. if the black arts movement then failed black women by not taking their gender into their agenda, the feminist movements of the period failed them by not taking race into theirs. as feminist theorist, bell hooks points out that a black woman looking for a theory that would encompass both gender and race would be pretty isolated: no other group in america has so had their identity socialized out of existence as have black women. we are rarely recognized as a group separate and distinct from black men, or as a present part of the larger group “women” in this culture. when black people are talked about, sexism militates against the acknowledgement of the interests of black women; when women are talked about racism militates against recognition of black female interests. when black people are talked about the focus tends to be on black men; and when women are talked about the focus tends to be on white women (21). a du boisian reading of the bluest eyes what matters mostly in this society is european or western's way of life and what is not included in this domain of society is marginalized like what pecola represents. this feeling of being ignored by others is also clear when pauline talks about the time she was in hospital and wanted to give birth to pecola. being a black woman, pauline was not under doctors' monitoring, while white pregnant women took benefit from nurses' and doctors' care. this kind of ignorance and marginalization or othering definitely affects the embryo's consciousness in pauline's womb as is depicted in the novel, “they never said nothing to me. only one looked at me. looked at my face, i mean. i looked right back at him”. or when she says that doctors talked to white women warmly: “i seed them talking to them white women” (125). the african suffers oppression also in the way he uses language. they do not pronounce words correctly or pay attention to making their sentences properly. this is seen in the novel when the narrator says, “nasty white folks is about the nastiest things they is” (120). these kinds of self-hatred and shame drive from the fact that african-americans suffer from double-consciousness. du bois asserted in his famous book, the souls of black folks that, the negro is ... gifted with second-sight in this american world – a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world. it is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity (1-2). what lewis gordon believes is that this kind of double-consciousness has two particular aspects to be analyzed. the first one is about “negative and psychological impacts of being a black person. so after comparing themselves with white people, blacks try to see themselves through the lens of whites”. the second one which gordon refers to is that, 125 ojiakor self-worth and the effects of double consciousness: toni... “after finding themselves different from others, they realize that they are not treated the same as whites” (78). this is clearly illustrated in the novel when pecola identifies herself with her white fellows and imagines how her situation of life would be different if she were a white girl. so in that way, she would be revered as a respectable girl: “if those eyes of hers were different, that is to say, beautiful, she herself would be different” (46). this feeling of two-ness in one's personality reveals the assumption that black people will be offended opines paul mocombe from “a synthesis of african survival (africanism) with european cultural norms, giving blacks a double consciousness or making them hybrids or bicultural”(7). in the bluest eyes, morrison refers to the plant dandelion which has a particular significance. being a wild plant, dandelion is considered as a useless flower which later becomes a white ball of seeds. this can be attributed to pecola who is being ignored by white people, “nobody loves the head of a dandelion. maybe because they are so many, strong, and soon...” (47) pecola refers to her own situation and conveys the message that although she is not a beautiful girl right now, later she will be a girl with a white skin and blue eyes who would be praised by everyone. what mocombe believes is that this kind of being a black, behaving in a way which does not attract white's attention is part of their “innate sense of blackness or negro blood” which caused these poor africanamerican people different from their white fellows” (59). what braden kendhammer argues in his article about du bois's concept of double consciousness is that, “because of feeling a special duality in their personality, blacks should have a satisfactory state of life and live in a way to take advantage of modern education” (57). but we see that the reverse of it exists in the novel. instead of building their life upon education and construction of their identity, the breedlove family is deprived of ordinary education and there is no clear and stable relationship among family members. there is no portrayal of any special love or understanding between pecola and her parents. even pecola's father works for his own profit and his only trouble is his own survival. one particular aspect in considering du bois's doubleconsciousness is according to richard schafer, the concept of 'veil'. this specific veil refers to “race itself and its impact on the lives of black american, the racial lens through which white americans view black americans” (3). in analyzing the novel, it becomes clear that pecola's family suffers from such veil in their lives, for example, when the poor condition of pecola's life is described in the novel, “and pecola, she hid behind hers. concealed, veiled, eclipsedpeeping out from behind the shroud very seldom, and then only to yearn for the return of her mask” (39). black people have to conceal behind their ugliness, blackness or their originality and be marginalized. actually a great gap or a vast dichotomy turns up between these two groups. another part of the novel which talks about existing veil between whites and blacks is when it says that the true and primordial obstacle which does not let white people build a good relationship with their black fellows is their skin colour and also their ugliness: “and it is the blackness that accounts for, that creates, the vacuum edged with distaste in white eyes” (49). throughout the novel, references to people's eyes are of great significance, for example, in the above sentence “white eyes”, or in a place where pecola sees herself in the mirror: “long hours she sat looking in the mirror, trying to discover the secret of the ugliness” (45). morrison intentionally made references to people's eyes, especially those of blacks'. she is saying that people's eyes act as a medium for one's expression of feelings and 126 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june attitudes. eyes are the most powerful organ of the body by which people can communicate with each other. or put in another way, the eyes are the first and most efficient organ of the body through which man can penetrate and understand each other's soul. what morrison claims is that no matter what the colour of people's skin, they can realize each other's needs just through looking at each other's eyes. in the novel, the reverse of this situation is depicted. there is no respect or love between white and black. the whole novel describes pecola's and even her mother's desire to be in the shoes of whites and be white and beautiful like them. actually both the mother and the daughter are in the words of shirshankar bhanegaonker “the poor victims bewitched by the illusory models of beauty” (381). this is what du bois describes as 'doubleconsciousness'. black people's identity trapped between a kind of two-ness and divergence make them not to preserve their primary personality and wish for something ruling in the societywhite skin. instead of constructing a new identity for herself, pecola destroyed it. what bhanegaonker says regarding her situation is that such voluntary need to be a beautiful girl led to pecola's despair, frustration, disintegration and insanity” (389). pecola thought that by having blue eyes she would be praised by everyone and do whatever she wanted, but what is actually depicted in the novel was death of her baby which was concomitant with her madness: “she, however, stepped over into madness, a madness which protected her from us simply because it bored us in the end” (206). this kind of seeing themselves through the eyes of whites reveals another aspect of du bois's concept of double-consciousness, opines shao yuhchaun, “the relation between individual and community and also past and future of blackness” (550). they all think about their future life and imagine how their life would change if they were white, and they also consider themselves in opposition to the whole society. they are always afraid of not being accepted by the community and have a disillusioned feeling which makes them alienated and dissociated from other people. to look at the other side of the matter, morrison in chaun, “dramatizes the devastating effect of chronic shame on her characters' sense of individual and social identity, describing their self-loathing, selfcontempt, their feelings that they are, in some essential way, inferior”(556). this kind of feeling about one's 'self' in blacks is clear in the novel when the narrator talks about pauline's treatment toward her family: “into her son she beat a loud desire to run away, and into her daughter she beat a fear of growing up, fear of other people, fear of life” (128). actually pecola's insatiable desire for having blue eyes results in becoming an invisible figure in the society who eventually becomes mad. she not only wanted a great transformation in her life like being a white and beautiful girl but also wanted the bluest eyes in the world. this kind of transcending beyond her capacities caused her tragic destiny. this kind of double-consciousness has its effect on frieda and claudia too. in a place, when claudia asked herself, “what made people look at them and say, “awwwww”, but not for me? or when she destroyed white baby dolls” (22). finally, the most apparent part of the novel which talks about pecola's double-consciousness is in the part where the narrator talks about pecola's appearance: “so the distaste must be for her, her blackness. all things in her are flux and anticipation. but her blackness is static and dread. and it is the blackness that accounts for, that creates, the vacuum edged with distaste in white eyes” (49). 127 ojiakor self-worth and the effects of double consciousness: toni... conclusion in lorain, ohio where picola grew up, the citizens are suffering from self-loathing because of their marginalization and because their self-worth has been so corroded by the lack of affirmation and appreciation. it is established that blacks in america are trapped between two poles of existenceas africans and also americans, so they are not able to establish a unique and permanent identity for themselves. they are under the influence of double-consciousness which made them become keener toward white people's world and an insatiable desire to be in their shoes like having white skin, speaking fluently or taking advantage of modern education. what toni morrison depict in her novels is that there is a great barrier or wall or what du bois calls 'a veil' between whites and blacks that exists which does not let each understand each other and penetrate each other's culture and civilization. the hegemonic situation in the society led to a state where the whites feel superior and dominant while blacks are doomed to be ignored and alienated. this state of being detached from community creates a special feeling of self-loathing and shame in black people and force them to transcend their current personality and desire something unachievable like what is depicted in the novel—pecola's desire to attain blue eyes caused her madness. however, as the writer highlights in the foreword section of the book, it is also extremely important to the narrative that the protagonist is a young child. pecola's struggles with her black appearance can be seen in the passage, in which she wishes she could make it disappear, please, god,” she whispered into the palm of her hand. “please make me disappear.” she squeezed her eyes shut. little parts of her body faded away. now slowly, now with a rush. slowly again. her fingers went, one by one; then her arms disappeared all the way to the elbow. her feet now. yes, that was good. the legs all at once. it was hardest above the thighs. she had to be real still and pull. her stomach would not go. but finally it, too, went away. then her chest, her neck. the face was hard, too. almost done, almost. only her tight, tight eyes were left. they were always left (43). effects of western colonization on black people's lives especially their mind are in a way that they spend their lives trying to imitate western state of life and imagine themselves as one of the whites. their main purpose is that they believe that all these kinds of good and advancement are the prerogatives of the whites. the bluest eyes shows how the africanamerican community has been denied the “american dream”. they have been closed out and rejected by the very country into which they were born. after reading and writing this work, i believe that the “remaining touched but not moved” (viii) morrison refers to is related to an inquiry of our society's values. should beauty be as important as it is? do african americans gain from being considered beautiful, or is it still harmful and drives them further away from their traditions? pecola does believe she has gotten her blue eyes by the end of the novel, but she still wants more: she needs the bluest eyes. after all, beauty standards are always going to be unachievable, even for white people. we will always be too fat or too tall, and the pursuit of beauty as one of the most desirable values in life will always create self-loathing. we all take part in pecola's downfall, and that may be the reason the “why” of her story is so difficult to handle (4). while we cultivate beauty as our strongest wish, we may be generating and spreading self-contempt. 128 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june as a solution, morrison brings love, stories, connection to the community. in the bluest eye, that community is the african american one, since that is the position of the main characters. after all, the bluest eye does not refer exclusively to pecola's wish. the “eye” can be read according to moses cat as “i”: self, subject (126). the bluest may be understood as a reference to blues: a strong african american tradition. if pecola imagined her healing would come from possessing the bluest of eyes, morrison seems to think that a truly healed identity will more probably come from connection to community and to others, and that is the message her novel gives. works cited bhanegaonkar, shivshankar g. “reflections of cultural conflict in toni morrison's the bluest eye. nanded: people's college u.p., 2012. bump, jerome. “racism and appearance in the bluest eyes: a template for an ethical emotive criticism”. college literature, vol. 37, no. 2. west chester u.p., 2010. byers, thomas. a city upon a hill: american literature and the ideology of exceptionalism. american studies in scandinavia 29.2.pp 76-84. 1997. du bois, w.e.b. the souls of black folks. rockville: arc manor press, 2008. dalsgaard katrine. “the one all black town worth the pain: american exceptionalism, historical narration and the critique of nationhood in toni morrison's paradise african critical essay”. african american review. summer 35(2): pp. 233-48. 2001. gordon, lewis. an introduction to african philosophy. new york: cambridge u.p., 2008. hill collins, patricia. black feminist thought : knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. boston : unwin hyman 1990. hooks, bell. ain't i a woman: black women and feminism. ny: routledge, 2015. kendhammer, brandon. “dubois the pan-africanist and the development of african nationalism”. ethnic and racial studies. vol. 30, no. 1. 2007. th kendrick, lamar. “to pimp a butterfly”. genius. 9 february, 2015. blacker-the berry-lyrics. mocombe, paul. soul-less souls of black folks. lanham, maryland: university press of america, 2009. https://genius.com/kendrick-lamar-the 129 ojiakor self-worth and the effects of double consciousness: toni... https://genius.com/kendrick-lamar-the moses, cat. “the blues aesthetic in toni morrison's the bluest eyes”. in bloom's modern critical interpretations – toni morrison's the bluest eyes – updated edition, pp. 125–144. new york, ny: infobase publishing, 2007. neelam, bhardwaj. “the blues eyes: a tragedy of oppression and internalized racism”, in international journal on studies in english language and literature (ijsell). vol.4, issue 8, pp.101-104, august, 2016. o'reilly, andrea. toni morrison and motherhood: a politics of the heart. america: new york state u.p., 2004. semmes, clovis. “the sociological tradition of e.franklin frazier: implications for black studies”. the journal of negro education. vol 55, no 4. chicago. 1986. schaefer, richard. “encyclopedia of race, ethnicity, and society. double consciousness”. depaul u.p., 2013. toni, morrison. the bluest eyes. london: vintage books, 1999. yuh-chuan, shao. “the double consciousness of cultural pariahs—fantasy, trauma and black identity in toni morrison's tar baby”. institute of european and american studies, academia sinica. vol. 36, no. 4. 2006. 130 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june against methodism: a socio-historical perspective of science lukman ademola lawal abstract the received view of science is that of an objective enterprise which possesses the rational methods of inquiry which produce knowledge that is based on factual experience. science claims to be the most reliable inquiry into the nature of reality; due to the supposed supremacy of the so called ―scientific method‖ over those of other intellectual endeavours. however, the idea of ―method‖ in science is itself a source of controversy to philosophers of science over the years. indeed, scientists themselves do not bother so much about matters of methodology and as such, there is no unanimous agreement amongst scientists of the specific method which determines the techniques and procedures guiding their inquiry into nature. this notwithstanding, there have been several formulations of the scientific method as evident in the works of some scientists and philosophers of science alike over the years. the method of induction which was first explained by aristotle was elaborated by francis bacon and later prepared the groundwork for logical empiricism and modern empirical science. inductivism later became challenged by karl popper who declared that science only progresses by ―conjecture and refutation.‖ this paper argues in line with the socio-historical and pragmatic conception of science advanced by the likes of thomas khun, paul feyerabend, richard rorty among others that the scientific enterprise is not guided by a definite method, but by certain arbitrary activities that are relative to sociocultural backgrounds. the paper further contends that the very idea of science is not to be viewed solely from a western perspective, which gave birth to the appellation ―western science,‖ rather it should be seen in the light of the systematic attempts by every society and culture to understand, explain and predict their natural environment. keywords: science, empiricism, socio-historical method, inquiry 1. introduction science has crafted for itself an identity, which is that it serves as the paradigm of rationality and as the sole model of truth. it also prides itself as possessing the most powerful problem-solving tools of objectivity and rationality. however, one fundamental question that bothers philosophers of science is: what exact method, if any, is responsible for the tremendous successes recorded by science in the past two to three centuries? peter medawar (the nobel prizewinning scientist) attempted to respond to the above question when he contends that even scientists themselves do not have a unanimous agreement upon a specific scientific method that guides all scientists in carrying out their inquiries on natural phenomena. thus, in the words of medawar, scientists ―are not in the habit of thinking about matters of methodological policy. ask a scientist what he conceives the scientific method to be, and he will adopt an expression that is at once solemn and shifty lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … eyed: solemn, because he feels he ought to declare an opinion; shifty-eyed, because he is wondering how to conceal the fact that he has no opinion to declare‖ (medawar, 1984: 80). furthermore, and in allusion to the thoughts of medawar, scientists are of the habit of regarding disciplines such as political science, theology, education, and even philosophy as pseudo-sciences (false sciences) or as falling in the class of the so called ―irrelevant disciplines‖, but they (scientists) themselves are unable to state with precision, ―what it means to be scientific.‖ moreover, if we do not have a clear-cut understanding of the specific methods, principles and techniques that aid scientists in going about their everyday inquiries, then we obviously cannot make much sense of the very idea of science. however, only a few scientists have shown interest in the methodology of science, as such; thereby leaving the conceptualization and critical evaluation of the idea of scientific method to philosophers of science. this explains richard feynman‘s claim that: ―philosophy of science is about as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds‖ (nola & sankey, 2007: 2). in view of the foregoing, the task we set out to achieve in this paper is to attempt a succinct clarification of the very idea of ―scientific method‖, while also delving into some of the key issues and concepts involved in any discussion of scientific method. this paper would examine contentious debate in the philosophy of science about whether there exists or not a method of operation in the sciences. 2. the very idea of “scientific method” as hinted above, science is supposed by its practitioners (particularly of the positivist orientation) to be the paradigm of rationality, but the methodology and techniques of operation that have aided its success have not bothered scientists themselves so much. alan chalmers, in the introduction to the third edition of his work, what is this thing called science? expresses that: science is highly esteemed. apparently, it is a widely held belief that there is something special about science and its methods. the naming of some claims or line of reasoning or piece of research ―scientific‖ is done in a way that is intended to imply some kind of merit or special kind of reliability. but what, if anything, is so special about science? what is this ―scientific method‖ that allegedly leads to especially meritorious or reliable results? (chalmers, 1999: xix). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), for the purpose of conceptual clarification, robert nola and howard sankey in their co authored work, the theories of scientific method, trace the origin of the word ―method‖ to ancient greek methodos, which according to them ―has its roots in the idea of being crafty or cunning. later for the greeks it came to mean ―the pursuit of knowledge‖ or ―a way of enquiry‖ (literally, ―way of pursuit‖)(nola & sankey, 2007). in modern times, the common understanding of the word, ―method‖, is that of a way of carrying out an activity in accordance with a plan or set out procedure. according to isaac sheffler, ―scientific method‖ ―is the way techniques are selected in science; that is, the evaluation of alternative courses of scientific action‖ (sheffler, 1963: 5). this definition already contrasts the term ―scientific method‖ with ―scientific technique‖. this makes it imperative to draw a distinction between both terms. scientific technique is the particular way of applying a scientific tool or way of undertaking a scientific course of action. it involves how a scientific course of action or research program is being carried out, while scientific method refers to the rules of decision that guide the scientist on which particular technique to employ. put simply, methods are the rules of making choices, while techniques are the choices being made. one must acknowledge the fact that the distinction between scientific method and scientific technique is difficult to spell out. however, there is a more technical sense in which the concept of ―scientific method‖ is employed, to refer to the general procedures for carrying out research in the sciences. this is the sense in which arthur c. danto construes the term. for him, scientific method consists in ―(a) explaining natural processes through identification of the natural causes responsible for them and (b) testing any given explanation with regard to consequences that must hold if it is true‖(danto, 1972: 448). this conception of ―scientific method‖ has received wide acceptance from scientific theorists, including morris cohen and ernest nagel who endorse it as the ―most assured technique man has yet devised for controlling the flux of things and establishing stable beliefs‖ (cohen & nagel, 1934: 49-50). there are certain identified procedural stages that are followed in the practice of scientific methods. however, scientists are not unanimous about the specific number of such stages. this is what robert nola and howard sankey both recognize as the different methodological practices within the sciences, which they list out as: ―observational practices, material practices in experimentation and mathematical practices.‖ for them, ―they are part of the proper use of acquired skills and abilities embodied in our knowing how to observe, how to experiment and how to calculate‖ (robert nola& howard sankey,2007: 13). this shares similarity with the three phases of scientific method listed by a. d‘abro, namely; the ―observational stage‖, ―the experimental stage‖ and ―the mathematical stage‖(d‘abro, 1951: 77). lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … 3. rules of inference in scientific practice there are two commonly recognized rules of inference that aid scientists in arriving at conclusions or generalizations, namely: the inductive rule of inference and the deductive rule of inference. it was aristotle who first explained how induction works in science in his organon. he explains the principle of induction as a way of getting knowledge of the universal by making inference from our knowledge of particulars. in his novumorganum, francis bacon also discussed the importance of induction in the sciences. as shall be seen in the following section in this paper, isaac newton also appeals to the method of induction in his account of the rules of scientific method, which are clearly stated in rule 3 and rule 4 of his principia, book iii. however, david hume came to hold a fierce attack against the method of inductive inference in science. the deductive rule of inference, as against induction begins from making inferences from a general proposition or statement, then narrowing it down to particular propositions. the deductive system proceeds from the universal to the particular. the logical deductive rule of inference is therefore the method of drawing particular conclusions from general principles or laws as being common in the sciences. both induction and deduction are methods of inference being used commonly by scientists in day to day scientific activities. in the philosophy of science, the both methods have been put under scrutiny as they require justifications as to how reliable they are in leading scientists to accurate conclusions or generalizations. 4. formulations of scientific method in the history of science principles or rules that guide scientific thought and practice can be traced down to earlier formulations by the likes of rene descartes, isaac newton and duhem. it is presumed that the principles or rules of scientific methodology formulated by the aforementioned influenced later theorists of scientific method like karl popper and imre lakatos. rene descartes proposed an early theory of scientific method in his discourse on method. he projected the aim of science as being the attainment of certain or indubitable truths or knowledge. this is evident in his rules 1 and 2. rule 1 states that: ―the aim of our studies should be to direct the mind with a view to forming true and sound judgements about whatever comes before it.‖ rule 2 states that:―we should attend only to those objects of which our minds seem capable of having certain and indubitable cognition‖ (see rene descartes, discourse on method).however, certainty has come to be criticized as an aim for science, since most scientific theories are specified with a degree of error, thereby making certainty too high an objective for scientific theories to meet. in his rule 3, descartes set out to construct a line of demarcation between science and pseudo-science, by stating that: ―concerning objects proposed for study, we ought to investigate what we can clearly and evidently intuit or deduce with certainty, and not what other people have thought or what we ourselves conjecture. for knowledge (scientia) can be attained in no other way‖ (see rene descartes, discourse on method).here he secludes conjectural and untested beliefs from science and claims that only that which is certified by our intuitions, aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), testing and inferred by valid deductions qualify as scientific knowledge. in his rule 4, descartes endorsed the idea of methodology in scientific practice, by making the claim that ―we need a method if we are to investigate the truth of things.‖ he then proceeded to clarify his idea of method in science, expressing that: ―by ‗a method‘ i mean reliable rules which are easy to apply and such that if one follows them exactly, one will never take what is false to be true … but will gradually and constantly increase one‘s knowledge‖ (see rene descartes, discourse on method). isaac newton on his part helped lay down the platform for inductive inference in scientific reasoning, as being evident in his rules 3 and 4 of his principia, book iii, ―the system of the world‖, as follows: rule 3: those qualities of bodies that cannot be intended and remitted (i.e. qualities that cannot be increased or diminished) and that belong to all bodies on which experiments can be made, should be taken as qualities of all bodies universally. rule 4: in experimental philosophy, propositions gathered from phenomena by induction should be considered either exactly or very nearly true not withstanding any contrary hypotheses, until yet other phenomena make such propositions either more exact or liable to exception (newton, 1999). in rule 3, newton was particularly concerned with how to make generalizations from particular instances of experiments being carried out. put in other words, he wanted to be assured of the plausibility of attributing properties assigned to particular objects being experimented to other objects elsewhere on earth or in other possible worlds. the essence of his rule 4 is to affirm the status of science as an essentially experimental philosophy or enterprise. for him, whatever is not ―deduced from the phenomena‖, or inferred from experimentation should be discarded as mere ―hypothesis‖ and as such, unscientific. emile duhem is one who weighs against newton‘s adoption of the principle of inductive inference, claiming that there is bound to be a contradiction in inference from premises to conclusion when taking such rules seriously. this he expressed in the following words: ―we have recognized that it is impossible to construct a theory by a purely inductive method. newton and ampere failed in this‖ (emile duhem, 1954). 5. scientific method according to logical positivism logical positivism is a 19 th century movement which proposed a radical view of science and philosophy, thereby changing the entire outlook and perceptions of those two fields. logical positivism gave rise to the bifurcation of human knowledge into two broad divisions, which include: knowledge or statements based on empirical verification or fact and statements that are true in virtue of their meanings or terms. the likes of alfred jules ayer, moritz schlick, carl g. hempel, and others are considered as logical positivists, due to their quest of ridding philosophy of its metaphysical or non-scientific impurities. the movement of logical positivism or modern empiricism proposed a criterion of lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … meaningfulness, which applies to all intellectual endeavors, including philosophy, theology, science and the rest. for the positivists, it is important to seek the authenticity or credibility of every idea of claim before accepting such ideas, and this can be done by demanding for the original sense impressions from which the ideas were derived. the criterion of meaningfulness developed by the logical positivists is often considered to be a fall-out of the theoretical hypothesis developed by david hume concerning the two criteria of significance, which involves seeking the impression from which every idea is apprehended, and also by distinguishing between the relations of ideas and matters of fact. hume expresses this fundamental criterion of significance in the following passage: when we run over libraries, persuaded of these principles, what havoc must we make? if we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance, let us ask, does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? no. does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? no. commit it then to the flames for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion (hume, 1975: 165). the demarcation between knowledge that contains abstract reasoning (analytic statements) and knowledge that contains fact and existence (synthetic statements) in the above passage attributed to hume gave solid grounds to the principle of significance and demarcation developed by the logical positivists, which is regarded as the verifiability principle. the verifiability principle or empirical verification implies that for any piece of knowledge or discipline to be regarded as being meaningful or significant, such knowledge must have to pass the test of empirical verification, and as such, must be in principle, verifiable by experience. the emphasis on empirical verifiability by the logical positivists implies that any discipline that is devoid of meaningful statements which are classified on the basis of their analytic and empirical features; are to be regarded as being irrelevant to the progress of human knowledge, and should therefore be jettisoned. the verifiability principle represents not only a tool of demarcation between science and pseudo-science, both also method of identifying and solving scientific problems generally adopted by the logical positivists. this is more affirmed in moritz schlick‘s contention that: ―the meaning of every proposition is finally to be determined by the given, and by nothing else‖ (ayer, 1959: 88-89). the ―given‖ mentioned by schlick implies propositions testable by empirical evidence. 6. the critical rationalism of karl popper a thorough-going antagonist of the principle of inductivism is karl popper, who considers every attempt to ground scientific practice on the foothold of inductivism a misguided aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), endeavour. karlpopper is notable for his popular doctrine of falsificationism which he prefers as an alternative to inductivism. this, alan chalmers expresses in the following words: ―karl popper was the most forceful advocate of an alternative to inductivism which i will refer to as ―falsificationism‖ (chalmers, 1999: 59). popper associates his principle of verificationism with his vision of a scientific method. popper illustrates the idea of method in science in the following words: a scientist, whether theorist or experimenter, puts forward statements, or systems of statements, and tests them step by step. in the field of the empirical sciences, more particularly, he constructs hypotheses, or systems of theories, and tests them against experience by observation and experiment. i suggest that it is the task of the logic of scientific discovery, or the logic of knowledge, to give a logical analysis of this procedure; that is, to analyse the method of the empirical sciences. but what are these ‗methods of the empirical sciences‘? and what do we call ‗empirical science‘?(popper, 1959: 3). closely associated here, as reflected in the above passage, are ‗methods of empirical sciences‘ and the conception of what ‗empirical science‘ is. for popper, the falsifiability principle is the criterion of demarcation of what falls within empirical science and what fails to. this principle is also closely identified with his idea of ‗logic of discovery‘ which is the scientific method. the scientific method therefore aids us in understanding what science is. popper expresses the link between his principle of demarcation (falsificationism) and his idea of scientific method in the following passage: in accordance with my proposal made above, epistemology, or the logic of scientific discovery, should be identified with the theory of scientific method. the theory of method, in so far as it goes beyond the purely logical analysis of the relations between scientific statements, is concerned with the choice of methods – with decisions about the way in which scientific statements are to be dealt with. these decisions will of course depend in their turn upon the aim which we choose from among a number of possible aims. the decision here proposed for laying down suitable rules for what i call the ‗empirical method‘ is closely connected with my criterion of demarcation: i propose to adopt such rules as will ensure the testability of scientific statements; which is to say, their falsifiability (popper, 1959: 27). lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … however, popper does not conceive of the idea of scientific method in terms of rules of discovery, or rules of justification of hypothesis or theory or principles for ascertaining the truth of a theory. for him, the aim of science should not be the attainment of truth, nor should scientific theories be judged or evaluated on the basis of meeting the criterion of truth. rather, scientific theories can only serve as approximations of truth. alan chalmers, expressing popper‘s idea of methodology, puts it thus: falsificationists freely admit that observation is guided by and presupposes theory. they are also happy to abandon any claim implying that theories can be established as true or probably true in the light of observational evidence. theories are construed as speculative and tentative conjectures or guesses freely created by the human intellect in an attempt to overcome problems encountered by previous theories to give an adequate account of some aspects of the world or universe. once proposed, speculative theories are to be rigorously and ruthlessly tested by observation and experiment. theories that fail to stand up to observational and experimental tests must be eliminated and replaced by further speculative conjuctures. science progresses by trial and error, by conjectures and refutations. only the fittest theories survive (chalmers, 1999: 60). it is not appropriate to consider a theory as being true following popper‘s line of reasoning, but what we can say about a theory is that it is the best available confirmation of observed experience that is available to us and is more reliable than the previous theories. what according to popper, can be considered as method in the empirical sciences are succinctly expressed by jack aigbodioh as ―continuous efforts on the part of scientists to refute or falsify existing theories on the basis of some possible or conceivable observations‖ (aigbodioh, 1997: 25). what scientists should be preoccupied with therefore is the activity of fixing truths and beliefs and trying to prepare them for acceptance or justification. on the basis of these central assumptions, popper goes on to give two examples of rules of scientific method: rule (1): the game of science is, in principle, without end. he who decides one day that scientific statements do not call for any further test, and that they can be regarded as finally verified, retires from the game. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), rule (2): once a hypothesis has been proposed and tested, and has proved its mettle, it may not be allowed to drop out without ‗good reason‘. a ‗good reason‘ may be, for instance: replacement of the hypothesis by another which is better testable; or the falsification of one of the consequences of the hypothesis (popper, 1959: 32). underlying these rules of method given by popper is the falsifiability thesis which is the rule of demarcation of science from pseudo-science. falsificationism simply states that a theory which is not falsifiable does not belong to empirical science. therefore, any theory which claims to be compatible with all observable facts is not falsifiable and therefore unscientific. such theories never go wrong as they always find ways to accommodate any instances of change. according to chalmers, ―popper drew the moral that genuine scientific theories, by making definite predictions, rule out a range of observable states of affairs in a way that he considered freudian and marxists theory failed to. he arrived at his key idea that scientific theories are falsifiable‖ (chalmers 1999: 60). imre lakatos came under the influence of karl popper, whose approach to science he finds interesting. lakatos also drew influence from kuhn‘s epic publication, the structure of scientific revolutions. although popper and kuhn proposed rival views of science, their views share much in common. both popper and kuhn roundly reject positivism and inductivism, basing their accounts of the acceptance or rejection of the results of observation and experimentation in science on the background of theory or paradigm. lakatos was careful not to follow the relativist dimension of kuhn‘s account of science. just like kuhn, he considered scientific research or activity as taking place within a framework, which he called ―research program.‖lakatos‘s major task was to modify popper‘s notion of falsificationism while examining some of its deficiencies. popper‘s falsificationism does not state it clear how to identify faults with scientific theories, that is which particular aspect of a theory should be held liable to revision. popper only suggests that it is left to the discretion of the individual scientist to identify where the fault is within the theory. for lakatos, science cannot progress that way, not all parts of a scientific theory are equal, rather, what we have are basic principles or laws which form the core of a theory and the less fundamental ones which only form the peripheral parts of the theory. the basic principles represent the defining feature of a science and as such are not to blame for any failure that occurs in the theory. what should be held responsible for any apparent failure within the theory are the less fundamental components. alan chalmers summarizes lakatos‘ conception of science in the following articulation: ―a science can then be seen as the programmatic development of the implications of the fundamental principles. scientists can seek to solve problems by modifying the more peripheral assumptions as they see fit. in so far as their efforts are successful, they will be contributing to the development of the same research program however different their attempts to tinker with the peripheral assumptions might be‖(chalmers 1999), p. 131.over time, the task of scientists is to continually fix the ―protective belt‖, that is, the sum of the lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … additional hypothesis occupying the periphery in other to protect the hard core from falsification. in the words of lakatos: scientific research programmes may be characterized by their ‗hardcore‘. the negative heuristic of the programme forbids us to direct themodus tollens at this 'hard core'. instead, we must use our ingenuityto articulate or even invent 'auxiliary hypotheses', which form aprotective belt around this core, and we must redirect the modus tollensto these. it is this protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses which has tobear the brunt of tests and get adjusted and re-adjusted, or even completely replaced, to defend the thus-hardened core. a research programme is successful if all this leads to a progressive problem shift; unsuccessful if it leads to a degenerating problem shift (lakatos, 1978: 48). lakatos sets out guidelines for work within a research program, in terms of negative heuristics and positive heuristics. a heuristic is a set of rules or hints which serves as a tool in aiding invention or discovery. making the essential distinction between negative heuristics and positive heuristics, lakatos writes that: the negative heuristic specifies the 'hardcore' of the programme which is 'irrefutable by the methodological decision of its proponents; the positive heuristic consists of a partially articulated set of suggestions or hints on how to change, develop the ‗refutable variants‘ of the research programme, how to modify, sophisticate, the ‗refutable‘ protective belt(lakatos, 1978: 50). the negative heuristics help to specify what scientist are advised not to do, such as tampering with the hard core of the program. the positive heuristics of the program on the other hand specifies what scientists should do rather than what they should not do, guiding on how to protect the hard core by additional hypothesis which constitute the protective belt, which is in turn in need of constant modifications. what counts as the indicating factor of the merit of a research program is the extent to which it leads to novel predictions that are confirmed rather than falsified. when a research program leads to confirmed novel predictions, while retaining its coherence, it is said to be progressive, while a research program is degenerating when it fails to retain its coherence and at the same time is unable to yield novel predictions that are confirmed. the switch from degenerating research programs to the progressive ones represents lakatos‘ own idea of a scientific revolution. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 7. reviewing science socio-historically as earlier discussed in this paper, science is widely acclaimed to be the paradigm of rationality and as well possessing the scientific method, which is said to be responsible for the achievements recorded by science over the past two centuries. it has also been brought to fore in this paper that the general procedures for carrying out research in the sciences that we may call the scientific method, lacks clear-cut procedural stages. how then can a method that lacks defined procedural stages be held superior to other methods of inquiry? the popular and rational image of science, that of being the paradigm of rationality and objective knowledge, and the possession of a powerful method of enquiry which is superior to other methods, as well as the popperian notion of science as a system of falsification coupled with lakatos‘ idea of science as a research program have all come under attack by thomas kuhn and his allies. kuhn argues that neither logic nor observation, or any rational method plays a role in the account of theory formation. for him, science is not guided by any definite method but a system of arbitrary activities. as against the popular image of science as an intellectual engagement in constant pursuit of truth, kuhn gives an account of scientific progress in terms of a shift in paradigms. thomas kuhn‘s 1962 publication, the structure of scientific revolutions, had a revolutionary implication for scientific practice and changed the popular outlook of science as a system of falsification and as a paradigm of knowledge. for kuhn, science should not be regarded as the only paradigm of knowledge and model of truth. kuhn‘s contention is that the scientific enterprise is not guided by a definable method but by a system of continual shifts from one paradigm to another. kuhn clarifies his notion of scientific paradigm by stating that they are ―universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of researchers‖ (kuhn, 1970: 10).a scientific paradigm incorporates a set of theoretical assumptions or axioms that are agreed upon or accepted at a given time by a ‗scientific community.‘ for kuhn, the use of scientific paradigms by scientists to solve particular problems that arise in the scientific community is ‗normal science.‘ according to kuhn, there comes a time, no matter how successful a scientific paradigm is, when it becomes incapable of solving the problems it encounters. the consequence of this is that new paradigms are developed to solve and accommodate the problems that were ab initio unresolved by the old paradigm. in this kind of situation, where there is a problem of choice between the former paradigm and the new paradigm, a scientific revolution is said to have taken place. this further leads us to kuhn‘s notion of incommensurability, since it is assumed that there are no common grounds or ―common coordinate systems‖ on which to compare and choose between two paradigms. the choice of a better paradigm, (whether the old or the new) is not facilitated by an objective system or method. the notion of incommensurability is that two paradigms can be so different that they cannot be compared in any way. the implication of kuhn‘s revolutionary philosophy for our lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … discourse is that the idea of objective truth or knowledge should be rejected, since for kuhn, there are no fixed sets of facts about the world that are paradigm-neutral. for kuhn, beliefs, opinions, theories and hypothesis about the world are dependent on paradigms and can change when paradigms change. theories are therefore relative to paradigms. this contradicts the notion of the universal excellence of scientific enterprise that stands superior to all other systems of inquiry. paul feyerabend, the renowned methodological anarchist, in his 1975 publication, against method, attacks the very idea of the superiority of science to all other forms of inquiry. his fundamental assumption is that there is no such thing as scientific method which represents the surest and most reliable system of attaining rational certainty and objective knowledge. feyerabend expresses his distaste for the idea of the universal excellence of science and the superiority of its methods of inquiry. in articulating feyerabend‘s contempt for methodism in all forms of inquiry, john preston has it that feyerabend raised such questions as: ―what‘s so great about knowledge?‖ ―what‘s so great about science?‖ ―what‘s so great about truth?‖ ―how does science differ from witchcraft?‖ ―does it (science) provide the only rational way of cognitively organizing our experience?‖ ―what should we do if the pursuit of truth cripples our intellects and stunts our individuality?‖ in response to these questions, feyerabend held no idea or no person sacred(preston, 2002: 183). for feyerabend, philosophers and scientists alike should free their mindsets and open doors to ―ideas from the most disparate and apparently far-flung domains, insisting that this is the only way they can understand how knowledge grows.‖ 27 (jimoh, 2013: 183). in feyerabend‘s writings, he opines that the history of science does not project a unique or unifying rational method of inquiry, but a series of opportunistic, chaotic, and inventive attempts made by a particular ―community‖ (whether social or intellectual) to cope with immediate problems confronting them. the background of his methodological anarchism is that rationality is not only peculiar to science. in the introduction to his against method, feyerabend writes that ―science is an essentially anarchic enterprise. theoretical anarchism is more humanitarian and more likely to encourage progress than its law-and – order alternatives‖ (feyerabend, 1975: 9).he then goes further to write that: ―this is shown both by an examination of historical episodes and by an abstract analysis of the relation between idea and action. the only principle that does not inhibit progress is: anything goes‖ (feyerabend, 1975: 14). the summation of his anarchist thesis is that there are no fixed, universal and absolutely binding principles that guide in conducting the business of science or other modes of inquiry. the socio-historical account of the nature of science can also be explained from the perspective of african traditional cultural practices. this can be regarded as a cultural conception of science, which regards science as being predicated upon the cultural attempts to explain, understand and interpret the natural phenomena surrounding a group aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), of people. the cultural conception of science falls in line with what robert bishop aptly describes as the activity conception of science, when he characterized science ―as a mode of human activity by which we have progressively gained control over our environment‖ (bishop, 2007: 9). bishop further notes that this view is ―closely connected with craft traditions, artisans and technology, and emphasizes that scientific practices grew out of our ordinary ways of coping with the world‖ (bishop, 2007).the african conception of science is based on the african conceptual scheme which gives an ontological categorization of reality which is essentially driven by the three-valued trait in african thought system. this three-valued trait which obtains in african thought systems is being described by jonathan chimakonam as consisting of the ―physical, the non-physical as well as the union of the two‖ (chimakonam, 2012: 33). the union of the physical and the non-physical dimensions of existence in african thought systems represent a comprehensive interpretation of reality, which stands in contrast to the two-valued trait conception of reality often attributed to western science. the two-valued trait bifurcate reality into the physical and the spiritual while giving utmost preference to the physical over the spiritual or metaphysical aspects of reality. this explains why western scientific knowledge is regarded as being essentially based on the facts of existence devoid of metaphysical excesses. however, the african cultural perspective of reality gives preference to a fuller dimension of reality, while combining the physical, non-physical and the union of the two in a unified system of explaining, understanding and interpreting the african reality. 8. conclusion this paper began by drawing attention to the popular and rational image of science in which science is regarded as the most reliable system of inquiry that yields objective knowledge. science is so regarded because there is believed to be a system or method of inquiry that guarantees success or accuracy of experimental results in the sciences. this method itself is however, not so much taken by scientists with utmost seriousness, as they mostly fail to characterize what should constitute the scientific method. part of what we have been able to do in this paper is to help analyze the concept of scientific method itself, taking us down through the trajectory from the earlier formulations of principles or rules of scientific methodology to the more recent ones. as evident in this paper, any worthy discussion of scientific methodology should not be deemed complete without an account of the ongoing discourse in the philosophy of science about the very existence of a method of inquiry in the sciences. however, most scientists would want to reckon that there is a ―scientific method‖ that aids in carrying out operations in the sciences, but this position is currently a controversial one in the philosophy of science. lawal against methodism: a socio-historical … references aigbodioh, j. 1997. philosophy of science: issues and problems. (ibadan: hope publications). ayer, a. 1959. (ed). logical positivism (new york: macmillian publishing co., inc. the free press). bishop, r. 2007. the philosophy of the social sciences: an introduction. (london: continuum international publishing group). chalmers, a. 1999. what is this thing called science? 3 rd edition. (cambridge: hackett publishing company inc.) chimakonam, j. 2012. ―towards a theory of african science: methods and justification‖. iosr journal of pharmacy and biological sciences (iosrjpbs), issn: 2278-3008 volume 3, issue 1 (sep-oct 2012), pp 3341 www.iosrjournals.org. cohen, m., and nagel, e. 1934. ―the nature, limits and value of scientific method‖ in titus, h., and hepp, m. (ed.), the range of philosophy, introductory readings (new york: american book company.) cottingham, j. stoothoff, r., murdoch, d. 1985. the philosophical writings of descartes, volume 1 (cambridge: cambridge university press). d‘ abro, a. 1951. the rise of the new physics (new york: dover publications). danto, a. 1972. ―naturalism,‖ in paul edwards (ed.) the encyclopedia of philosophy (new york: macmillian publishing co., inc., & the free press.) vol. 5. duhem, p. the aim and structure of physical theory (princeton, nj: princeton university press, 1954), ch. vi, §5. feyerabend, p. 1975. against method. (london: new left books). hume, d. 1975. enquiry concerning human understanding. edited by l.a. selby bigge (oxford: clarendon press). section ii, p. 22. jimoh, a. 2013. certitude and doubt: a study guide in epistemology. (ibadan: ebony books &kreations). kuhn, t. 1970. the structure of scientific revolutions. (chicago: university of chicago press). lakatos, i. 1978. the methodology of scientific research programmes: philosophical papers volume. 1. (cambridge: cambridge university press). medawar, p. 1984. plato’s republic. (oxford: oxford university press). newton, i. 1999. the principia, i. b. cohen & a. whitman (trans.) (berkeley, ca: university of california press). nola, r. and sankey, h. 2007. the theories of scientific method (stocksfield: acumen publishing limited). popper, k. 1959. the logic of scientific discovery. (london & new york: routledge classics). http://www.iosrjournals.org/ aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), preston, p. 2002. ―paul feyerabend,‖ in stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, summer 2002. ed. (retrieved 9/6/2013). quoted in jimoh, a. 2013. certitude and doubt: a study guide in epistemology. (ibadan: ebony books &kreations). sheffler, i. 1963. the anatomy of inquiry (new york: knopf publishers, inc.). a critique of the divine command theory of ethics from the teachings of the abrahamic religions abubakar zaria ibrahim abstract divine command theory is a theory of ethics that grounds the nature of ethical demands in the fact that they represent the command of god. it posit that god‟s command is the ultimate source of moral obligation or that god‟s will is the basis of moral laws. this position was held by the medieval theologians and philosophers like anselm, abelard, duns scotus and william of ockham. endorsed by locke and berkeley, and in the modern age it has been especially elaborated by kierkegaard and barth, it was criticized by aquinas, who emphasized god‟s intellect rather than his will. the divine command theory of ethics, however, faces a philosophical difficulty. interestingly, is that in spite of some disagreeing debates within, the divine command theory is supported in all the abrahamic religions (judaism, christianity and islam). this article, therefore, aims to critique the arguments of some scholars for and against the theory. a hermeneutic framework is employed. the significance of all critique is that looking at morality within the religious tradition, solutions are provided to the moral problems within human conflicting societies. keywords: divine command, ethics, morality, religion, ontic. 1. introduction divine command theory is a theory of ethics that grounds the nature of ethical demands in the fact that they represent the command of god (blackburn, 2008:103). also called theological voluntarism, divine command is a position which claims that god‟s command is the ultimate source of moral obligation or that god‟s will is the basis of moral laws. an action is said to be good because it conforms to divine commands. an action is said to be bad or evil because it is performed even though the agent knows that such an act breaches god‟s commands. this position was held by the medieval theologians and philosophers like anselm, abelard, duns scotus, and william of ockham. it was endorsed by locke and berkeley, and in the modern age it has been especially elaborated by kierkegaard and barth. it was criticized by aquinas, who emphasized god‟s intellect rather than his will (bunnin and yu, 2004). however, the social problem confronting the account is that in the period of declining religious belief, people fail to attach importance to such moral concern. more problematic is that the classical philosophical problem associated with such an account is the euthyphro dilemma: “does god command that a thing is good because it is good, or is a thing good because god commands it?” (plato, 1961:169-185). if it is the former, god is not the authority and we should be able to determine our morality without reference to god; if it is the latter, we have a tautology: a thing is what god commands because it is what god commands. in neither case do we seem to have explained the nature of goodness. this theory has difficulty in explaining how god‟s command can have moral force. if a moral law is justified in terms of god‟s will, it is not clear how we can determine that god‟s will is good. according to this concept of tautology, therefore, if we have other grounds for finding out what is morally good, we might determine that god‟s will is good, but we do not need his commands to know our moral obligations. but graber (1975) argues that divine command theory of ethics has more going for it than has been generally acknowledged. he identifies the factor responsible for obscuring the merits of a divine command theory as the heavy-handedness with which philosophers have been led to deal with it as a result of trying to handle too much at once. he shows that it is a mistake to expect any “inherent moral reason” for god‟s commands. the demand for independent validation of god‟s commands is based either on an assumption which can be shown to be question-begging, given the structure of systems of justification, or on a practical fear which, however much it is warranted with regard to human authorities, cannot be sustained in the case of divine authority, given god‟s benevolence and faithfulness. hence, a divine command theory of ethics can be formulated in a way that is consistent and plausible. in whichever way we conceive it, we can always ask what the basis of morality itself is. there are two quite different explanations that are commonly offered. the first is that the basis of morality is social agreement, and the other, that morality is ultimately rooted in religion. our concern, therefore, is to critique the divine command theory of morality devised form the perspectives of the abrahamic religions (judaism, christianity and islam). 2. the critique 2.1 jewish scholars the divine command theory of ethics, faces a philosophical difficulty. the difficulty is found in the famous dilemma posed in plato‟s euthyphro: does god freely determine morality, or is morality independent of god? attempts to trace the origins of divine command theory in the history of philosophy often begin with the scholastic philosophers john duns scotus and william of ockham (idziak, 1979). ockham‟s moral theory, as noted by marilyn adams, is often taken as „the paradigm of “divine command morality”‟ (1986:1-35). according to idzik, in a passage in on the four books of the sentences, ockham writes: ...the hatred of god, theft, adultery, and actions similar to these according to the common law . . . can even be performed meritoriously by an earthly pilgrim if they should come under a divine precept, just as now the opposite of these in fact fall under a divine command. and, with a divine command in effect for the contrary of these, it is not possible that anyone meritoriously or rightly engage in such acts, because these are not performed meritoriously unless they come under a divine command. and if they should be done by an earthly pilgrim meritoriously, then they would not be called or named „theft‟, „adultery‟, „hatred‟, etc... and therefore, as far as the total meaning or the definition of such names is concerned, they signify evil qualities…. (idziak, 1979:56–57) the overall import of this passage is that the moral status of an action depends solely upon god‟s command. theft, adultery etc., are wrong at present only because „the opposite of these in fact fall[s] under a divine command‟, that is because god forbids these actions. if these actions were commanded by god, they would be „performed meritoriously‟, and, as the end of the quoted passage makes clear, they would not be called by names which are negatively morally charged. the forms of divine command theory ockham accepts in this passage is explicitly stated, that the actions that he is discussing „are not performed meritoriously unless they come under a divine command‟, in other words god‟s command is a necessary condition of the moral rightness of an act. but ockham also says that theft, adultery etc., „can even be performed meritoriously by a person if they should come under a divine precept‟, that is, god‟s command is a sufficient condition of the moral rightness of an act. this denotes that the moral status of an action is solely dependent upon the divine command. ockham thus does not mean in this passage merely that god‟s command is a necessary and sufficient condition of the moral rightness of an action; that would yield only equivalence. but ockham plainly intends, as well, that there is an asymmetrical relationship of dependence of the moral rightness of an action on god‟s command. and the dependence that he argues for in this passage is clearly ontic as opposed to epistemic or semantic. in another passage, ockham writes: by the very fact that god wills something, it is right for it to be done . . . hence if god were to cause hatred of himself in anyone‟s will, that is, if he were to be the total cause of the act (he is, as it is, its partial cause), neither would that man sin nor would god; for god is not under any obligation, while man is not (in the case) obliged, because the act would not be in his own power. (urban, 1973:312) the beginning of this passage, „...by the very fact that god wills something, it is right for it to be done‟, asserts sufficient condition. in the remainder of the passage, ockham claims that there are no moral constraints on god‟s actions. thus, this extract also supports morality depends upon god, and he absolutely cannot be questioned, because he is not bounded by any moral obligation. divine freedom from moral constraints is also asserted in ockham‟s remark that „... obligation does not fall on god, since he is not under any obligation to do anything‟. however, it should be noted that contrasting interpretations of ockham‟s stance are not uncommon. thus even copleston (1953), who seems to agree that, ultimately, ockham supports divine command theory, believes that „we are faced with what amounts to two moral theories in ockham‟s philosophy‟ because of ockham‟s frequent employment of the scholastic concept of „right reason‟ which he sometimes portrays as the norm of morality (coplestone, 1953:107). oakley states that ockham is “simply inconsistent” (1961:70). david clark (1971:72-87) and others have all argued that ockham‟s position is significantly more complex than a straightforward espousal of ontic divine command theory. what is interesting, however, is that in spite of some disagreeing debates within, the divine command theory is supported in all the abrahamic religions. some jewish scholars, for examples, immanuel jakobovits, isadore twersky and marvin fox argue that jewish tradition supports divine command theory, the notion that morality depends upon god‟s command. while others like aharon lichtenstein, shubert spero, louis jacobs and avi sagi object on the ground that tradition denies this view. but harris, m.j. (2003) argues that the picture that emerges from jewish texts is significantly more complex and nuanced than most jewish philosophical literature is prepared to concede on this issue. he shows that the contemporary philosophical literature tends to recast socrates‟s query, which is „the euthyphro dilemma‟, in monotheistic and more modern terminology. the structures of the dilemma are refashioned in the following way: is it the case that; (1) an act is right because god commanded (or wanted or willed or approved) it, or alternatively, is it the case that (2) god commanded (or wanted or willed or approved) this act because it is right? (sagi and statman, 1995:11) according to the first structure (1), god, or more precisely his command or will, etc., determines morality; morality depends upon god. on the second structure (2), by contrast, morality is independent of god; he commands or wills certain things because of moral considerations that are not contingent upon him. however, an intriguing response to the issue of divine interaction with morality in jewish tradition is offered by yeshayahu leibowitz. according to harris (2003), leibowitz propounds a highly austere view of jewish religious life in the following statement: the religious jew is he who has accepted upon himself the yoke of torah and the commandments . . . if we are talking about the religion of israel, we cannot avoid seeing the fact that the original, historical hebrew concept of religiosity is the acceptance of the yoke of torah and the commandments. (harris, 2003:37) for leibowitz, judaism, at least at the level of the individual religious life of the jew who takes his or her faith seriously, is essentially co-extensive with the observance of torah and the commandments of judaism. leibowitz admits that, on a more abstract plane, torah study and observance of the practical commandments do not exhaust the entire content of judaism. but so far as the individual‟s jewish life is concerned, he remains adamant that observance of torah and the commandments is the fundamental relevant characteristic. a corollary of this picture of what constitutes jewish religious life is a claim which is highly germane to the euthyphro‟s problem, and which leibowitz (in harris, 2003) repeatedly emphasises. it is that human needs, interests and values have no legitimate place whatsoever in judaism, as characterised in the following statement; “judaism is not a programme for the solution of the problems of humanity but [a programme for] the service of god.” (harris, 2003:37). against this background, leibowitz‟s direct pronouncements about the relationship between judaism and ethics come as no surprise, when he writes that: judaism has not been embodied in ethics, and there is no meaning to the expression „the ethics of judaism‟ . . . ethics cannot be jewish or non-jewish, religious or non-religious -ethics is ethics . . . ethics is an atheistic category, which cannot be reconciled with religious consciousness or religious feeling . . . scripture does not recognise the good and the upright, rather „the good and the upright in the eyes of the lord‟. (harris, 2003:38) this way of de-ethicising scripture is a technique which leibowitz is fond of. in further attempt to reconcile his insistence that the torah contains no moral directives with the scriptural words held by rabbi akiva who attempts to constitute a great principle of torah, leibowitz points out that the relevant text, „you shall love your neighbour as yourself‟ is followed immediately by the words „i am the lord‟ (harris, 2003:38). this addition, argues leibowitz, radically transforms the verse „from a humanistic-moral principle into a religious commandment‟ (harris, 2003:37). leibowitz sees ethics as „an atheistic category‟. combining this contention with leibowitz‟s treatment of leviticus 19:18, we are again unsurprised by a statement which would otherwise have seemed unwarranted; regarding „and you shall love your neighbour as yourself‟ . . . as an expression of „the morality of judaism‟ is merely a heretical falsification of he torah (harris, 2003:37). leibowitz knows that there exists a category of ethics within the matrix of human life. what he is implacably opposed to is the use of judaism as a means towards achieving these human ethical goals. he is also passionately committed to a related but even more radical notion: the idea that judaism even contains any human ethics is anathema to him. judaism and ethics are utterly discrete categories, separate realms, and there cannot be any such thing as a „morality of judaism‟. what this argument necessitates is that we cannot base human morality on religion. but this study aims to show that societies have done that and have achieved some level of utility in the values and virtues derived from such religious morality. in contrast to leibowitz, immanuel jakobovits is an ardent advocate of jewish divine command ethics. he writes: every monotheistic religion embodies . . . a definition of moral values... in the jewish view, the human conscience is meant to enforce laws, not to make them. right and wrong, good and evil . . . defy definition by relation to human intuition . . . these values, judaism teaches, derive their validity from the divine revelation at mount sinai. (jakobovits, 1979:119) what is moral and what is not says jakobovits, is, on the jewish view, revealed to us by god. there is no place for the invention by human beings of their own moral laws. on the contrary: the task of humanity is simply to submit to the precepts of divinely revealed morality. jakobovits does not consider the possibility of a non-man-made, objective morality that nevertheless does not depend upon god. he presents only two options, a morality contingent upon god and a subjective human morality, and claims that jewish tradition unequivocally endorses the former. jakobovits‟s remarks in the passage cited are brief, and appear in the context of a discussion whose primary focus is a topic other than the relationship between divine commands and morality. it is thus difficult precisely to determine his position, but it is at least clear that he takes morality to be dependent on god‟s explicit torah commands, and it would appear that he construes this dependence as ontic in nature. in another work, jakobovits, in a statement reminiscent of one of leibowitz‟s observations writes; “...the duty to „love thy neighbour as thyself‟ is imperative only because „i am the lord‟ that is, „because i have commanded it” (1967:292) this statement is a definite expression of support for an ontic command form of divine command theory. in fact, the concise nature of jakobovits‟s articulations of support for the idea that divine command theory is the view of jewish tradition is worth remarking upon, particularly when his statements are contrasted with leibowitz‟s remarks. marvin fox, another advocate of jewish divine command ethics, makes several statements in support of the claim that jewish tradition endorses various versions of divine command theory. in one of his celebrated articles he writes; “it is through god‟s revelation, mediated by the prophets that men are taught to know what is right and wrong” (1972:126). the implication here, certainly in context, is that god‟s revelation is the only way that human beings achieve moral knowledge. fox thus supports that we would have no moral knowledge without god‟s revealed torah commands. the implication becomes explicit in fox‟s next paragraph: in ancient hebrew thought there is only one source of the knowledge of good and evil the commandments of god as they are revealed to man. (harris, 2003:38) in another essay, fox expresses unequivocal support for the idea that the hebrew bible supports both epistemic and ontic forms of divine command theory: the bible knows only god as the source of all notions of right and wrong. there is no definition of the good except his teaching and his will . . . within the biblical framework, he alone teaches us what is virtuous; there is no standard other than that which he has given us . . . even in the moments of their greatest bitterness and despair, the biblical prophets did not question that god alone is the source of our knowledge of right and wrong . . . without the divine moral standard, there is no standard at all. (1990:202203) fox, however, like most other contemporary jewish writers who discuss the divine command theory, does not distinguish between different forms (e.g. ontic, epistemic, and semantic) of these theses. it is possible, therefore, that in this passage fox is merely reiterating support for some version of ontic divine command theory. he might just mean to say that what god commands is ipso facto moral, and its morality is to be explained in terms of its being a divine command. and when he asserts that considering a law as both a divine commandment and immoral is a contradiction in terms, what he perhaps intends is the corollary of ontic divine command theory that, as we shall see below, is emphasised by luther for the christian perspective of the divine command theory: if god‟s command (ontically) determines morality, then logically there can be no conflict between divine commands and morality. 2.2 christian scholars the christian perspective of the divine command theory is reflected in certain passages in the reformation writings of luther and calvin. with their endorsement of divine command theory, these figures (among others) continued, after ockham, a tradition of adherence to divine command theory in christian thought. in reply to the question of why god permitted the fall of adam and why he created all humanity god is he for whose will no cause or ground may be laid down as its rule or standard; for nothing is on a level with it or above it, but it is itself the rule for all things. if any rule or standard, or cause or ground, existed for it, it could no longer be the will of god. what god wills is not right because he ought, or was bound, so to will; on the contrary, what takes place must be right, because he so wills it. causes and grounds are laid down for the will of the creature, but not for the will of the creator – unless you set another creator over him! (idziak, 1979:95) luther‟s language in the third sentence of this citation („what god wills‟, etc.) echoes that of the euthyphro dilemma as originally formulated by plato but provides (unlike plato in euthyphro) a response that favours divine command theory. discussing the question of whether there is injustice on god‟s part, luther states: for the fact is that there neither is nor can be any other reason for his righteousness than his will . . . furthermore, since his will is the highest good, why are we not glad and willing and eager to see it be done, since it cannot possibly be evil? if the only reason for god‟s righteousness is his will, then god‟s will is both a necessary and a sufficient condition of morality. (harris, 2003:97) luther also conveys the „asymmetry‟ of divine command theory by making god‟s will explanatorily prior to his righteousness. luther then makes explicit a very important corollary of divine command theory, which we have encountered above, though in a jewish context: ...if god‟s will (or command) determines morality, it follows logically that there can be no conflict between his will (or command) and morality„it cannot possibly be evil‟. (sagi and statman, 1995:117) the context of calvin‟s passages is a discussion of the doctrine of predestination and it also clearly supports divine command theory thus; for if his [god‟s] will has any cause, there must be something antecedent to it, and to which it is annexed; this it were impious to imagine. the will of god is the supreme rule of righteousness, so that everything which he wills must be held to be righteous by the mere fact of his willing it. therefore, when it is asked why the lord did so, we must answer, because he pleased. but if you proceed farther to ask why he pleased, you ask for something greater and more sublime than the will of god, and nothing such can be found. ... the will of god is not only free from all vice, but is the supreme standard of perfection, the law of all laws. but we deny that he is bound to give an account of his procedure; and we moreover deny that we are fit of our own ability to give judgment in such a case. (idziak, 1979:102) divine command theory is supported in these passages, certainly, at any rate, in the first and the third; but there are two further points of interest that make them particularly worth critiquing. first, proponents of divine command theory sometimes stress human obedience rather than human comprehension. the first passage, and even more so, the third, demonstrate the consanguinity that exists, for some advocates of divine command theory, between divine command theory and an emphasis on human obedience as opposed to human understanding. second, the third passage in particular, makes plain calvin‟s disapproval of human challenges to divine justice. we can understand the phrase „when justice clearly appears‟ to be a reference simply to the divine will that calvin says is the supreme standard of justice, not a reference to instances where what god does seems just to us. calvin‟s disapproval of human moral challenges to god is echoed in an article by james rachels (1981), who takes such disapproval to be the appropriate religious stance. however, jewish tradition, in genesis chapter 18, has tended not to find such challenges problematic. other philosophers who advocate divine command theory in the history of philosophy include, among others, descartes, locke and berkeley. another supporter of the theory, though seldom mentioned as such in the literature, is john austin, who writes: “the divine law is the measure or test of . . . morality . . . law and morality, in so far as they are what they ought to be, conform . . . to the law of god” (austin, 1998:6). austin holds that there are two kinds of divine commands: explicit (which he terms „revealed‟ or „express‟), and „tacit‟. together, these types of commands give us (among other things) the content of morality. the way in which we find out what the „tacit‟ commands are, according to austin, is „the principle of utility‟: whatever action (or, more precisely, class of actions, because austin is a rulerather than an act-utilitarian) brings about the greatest happiness of the greatest number is tacitly commanded. the class of actions that conforms to the principle of utility conforms also to god‟s command. in austin‟s words: the divine commands [are] the ultimate measure or test . . . the principle of utility, or the general happiness or good, [is] the proximate measure to which our conduct should conform, or the proximate test by which our conduct should be tried. (austin, 1998:104) the above shows that austin takes divine commands or divine law as explanatorily prior to morality. he says further: “it [utility] is not in itself the source or spring of our highest or paramount obligations, but it guides us to the source whence these obligations flow” (austin, 1998:104). this passage clearly expresses divine commands, showing them as the source of our moral obligations. austin‟s support, as articulated in the above appears to be for ontic divine command theory and plus some kind of explanatory priority of divine commands over morality. ludwig wittgenstein also endorses divine command theory, characterising as „shallow and rationalistic‟ the notion that god commands x because x is good (1965: 3–12). divine command theory has also been advanced in various forms by, for example, robert adams, philip quinn, stephen clark, robert burch, edward wierenga and paul rooney. all these support the thesis that divine command theory can be employed to inspire morality of individuals in particular, groups and societies in general. 2.3 islamic scholars about the literature on islamic divine command, al-attar argues that the vast majority of the books which deal with “islamic ethics” or “muslim ethics” do not cover philosophical ethical problems (2010:xix). donaldson‟s studies in muslim ethics (1953), as well as majid fakhry‟s ethical theories in islam (1991), both provide the reader with a general knowledge of what is usually referred to as islamic ethics. yet, neither of them deals in depth with the philosophical ethical problems that are related to any society‟s socio-political interests. however, this is not true as this and similar works influenced by it represent only one trend of islamic ethical thought, those intensely influenced by greek philosophy. such writers as miskawayh, although outstanding in general philosophy, should not be regarded as representatives of the distinctive aspects of islamic ethical thought. however, regardless of the misconceptions and errors that appeared in donaldson‟s book, it was the first to be written on islamic ethics by a western scholar. majid fakhry surveyed major aspects of different ethical trends in islam. george hourani‟s islamic rationalism: the ethics of ‛abd al-jabbar (1971) is a pioneering work in the study of mu‛tazilite ethical thought. hourani rightly points out that the writings usually described as ethics by philosophers such as miskawayh and tusi are mainly concerned with the classification and description of vices and virtues in the manner of aristotle‟s treatment in the nicomachean ethics. he also noticed that theories of values and ethics could be reconstructed from the works of the leading philosophers, but that their bases were regularly neo-platonism, incorporating aristotelian elements (1971:2). such books, according to hourani, “offer little of general philosophical interest that is new” (1971:21). therefore, he considers the mu‟tazila to be the first moralists of islam. he reconstructed a “deontological” moral theory from the works of ‛abd al-jabbār, and provided the reader with valuable insights into mu‟tazilite ethics. but his conclusion about the mu‟tazila is erroneous, because as we shall discuss in the next chapter, many scholars, like umaruddin (2003), are of the view that muslim morality is as old as islam. the first indigenous source in islam is the qur‟an, a scripture believed to be revealed by god to the prophet of islam. ethics in islam, therefore, takes its origin from the qur‟an and is wholly based on it. the qur‟an lays down the foundation of religious system on purely ethical principles that there is not much to distinguish between islam and islamic ethics. umaruddin (2003:64) argues that the moral, civil, canonical and criminal laws of islam are not rigidly separated from one another and cannot be identified as isolated systems. it was the muslims‟ particular characteristic that “they took their stand on qur‟an and founded and developed their sciences on original and independent lines” (margoliouth, 1950:55). according to umaruddin, the qur‟an, through divine command, inspired in the muslims the best and the noblest that is conceivable in life. he refers to some passages of the qur‟an which he chooses at random thus: shall the reward of good be aught but good ch 4 vs 60. and be good to the parents and to the near of kin and the orphans and the needy and the neighbour, and the companions in a journey and the wayfarer and the slavemaids in your possession ch 4 vs 36. and they who, when they spend, are neither extravagant nor parsimonious, and (keep) between the just means ch 30 vs 67. and who control their desires... but whoever indulge in their desire beyond this are transgressors ch 70 vs 31. and enjoin the right and forbid the wrong, and be patient under whatever shall betide thee: for this is a burden duty ch 31 vs 17. and let not ill-will towards any induce you not to act uprightly. act uprightly ch 5 vs 82. (umaruddin, 2003:65-66) the whole of the qur‟an is full of these kind of divine commands relating to kindness, forgiveness, piety, equity, just dealings, compassion, restrain of lust, nobility, modesty, and so on. in his book, ihya’, al-ghazzali is quoted to have said “the prophet himself says, “i have been sent to perfect morals.” (umaruddin, 2003:66). hashi (2011:124) also writes that “...in the qur‟an, belief in allah, humility, better communications and continuation of good deeds are the foundations of good morals.”. he quotes the qur‟anic statements about the best person being the person who upholds these moral foundations and invites others to practice these values. who can be better in religion than one who submits his whole self to allah, does good, and follows the way of abraham the true in faith? for allah did take abraham for a friend ch 4: vs 125. who is better in speech than one who calls (men) to allah, works righteousness, and says, i am of those who bow in islam? ch 41: vs 33. (hashi (2011:124) in islam, therefore, while the qur‟an lays the foundation of ethical concepts and standards, the sunnah [way of life] of the prophet contains the actual practices of such concepts. and the qur‟an exhorts the muslims to follow the guidance of the prophet, thus, macdonald writes that “it is the desire of every pious muslim to model his life in every possible particular upon that of the prophet.” (1960:103). margoliouth also writes that “every muslim endeavours to reach the unapproachable perfection of the prophet‟s character.” (1950:239). he adds that “...the immediate followers of the prophet who followed in his footsteps are also regarded as patterns of good conduct. in contrast to hourani, therefore these immediate followers who are known as the companions of the prophet were the first moralists after him. they possessed all the good qualities, e.g. knowledge, understanding, piety, patience, gratitude, etc.” (margoliouth, 1950:239). despite the fact that the fundamental principles of ethics were present in the qur‟an, ethics existed in the form of aphoristic wisdom. it was not studied as a philosophical science until the influence of the greek thought asserted itself on the muslim mind (umaruddin, 2003:68). and when the muslims took to studying philosophy they mainly concentrated on metaphysics, logic and physical sciences. like the greeks, at that early stage they considered ethics as part of politics. it was ibn miskawayh who made an attempt to write a systematic treatise on ethics (sharif, 1966:828). 3. conclusion this critique articulates the divine command theory of ethics, showing the theory as the source of moral obligations. in addition to the arguments presented by the abrahamic religions, the discussion shows that austin‟s support appears to be for ontic divine command theory adding some kind of explanatory priority of divine commands over philosophical morality. ludwig wittgenstein also endorses divine command theory, characterising as „shallow and rationalistic‟ the notion that god commands x because x is good. divine command theory has also been advanced in various forms by, for example, robert adams, philip quinn, stephen clark, robert burch, edward wierenga and paul rooney. all these support the argument that divine command theory can be employed to inspire morality of individuals in particular, and groups and societies in general. bibliography plato, (19961). the collected dialogues of plato including the letters. hamilton, e and cairns, h. (eds.), princeton university press, new jersey. plato, (1998 2013). euthyphro, translated by benjamin jowett, oxford university press. graber, g.c. (1975). in defense of a divine command theory of ethics. journal of the american academy of religion, 43, (1), 62-69 published by: oxford university press stable url: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1460735 idziak, j. m. (ed.) (1979). divine command morality: historical and contemporary readings. the edwin mellen press, new york. urban, (1973). william of ockham‟s theological ethics. franciscan studies 33, 310-350. oakley, f. (1961). „medieval theories of natural law: william of ockham and the significance of the voluntarist tradition‟. natural law forum 6, 65–83. clark, d. w. (1971). „voluntarism and rationalism in the ethics of ockham‟. franciscan studies 31, 72–87. jakobovits, i. (1979). jewish views on abortion. in rosner, f and david j.b. (eds.), jewish bioethics. new york: sanhedrin press, 118–133. harris, m.j. (2003). divine command ethics: jewish and christian perspectives, routledge, new york. sagi and statman (1995). religion and morality. rodopi, amsterdam-atlanta. jakobovits, i. (1967). jewish medical ethics: a comparative and historical study of the jewish religious attitude to medicine and its practice, bloch, new york. rachels, j. (1981:325-337). god and human attitudes. in divine commands and morality, ed. paul helm, oxford university press, england. austin, j. (1998). the province of jurisprudence determined and the uses of the study of jurisprudence. hackett, indianapolis. wittgenstein, l. (1953/1958). philosophical investigations [philosophische untersuchungen]. 2nd ed. translated by g.e.m. anscombe and edited by g.e.m. anscombe and r. rhees. oxford: blackwell. fakhry, m. (1975). justice in islamic philosophical ethics: miskawayh's mediating contribution. the journal of religious ethics, 3 (2), 243-254, retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40014897. umaruddin, m. (2003). the ethical philosophy of al-ghazzali, a.s noordeen publishers, kuala lumpur, malaysia. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40014897 fostering interreligious dialogue between christians and muslims in nigeria chukwunonso vitalis ogbo abstract upon being confronted by the mystery of his being and those of other creatures around him, man realizes that there must be a supreme being behind these mysteries who deserves praise and worship since all things owe their existence to him. man, therefore becomes essentially religious. over the years, however, good number of religion has developed with millions of adherents. each religion makes claim concerning man‘s ultimate end and the way to attain it. sometimes, these claims can be conflicting with each individual believing his or her faith to be the ultimate, and therefore, looks at other opposing views with suspicion and rejection. in nigeria, this tendency is found more conspicuously between muslims and christians. often time, christians see their muslim brothers as enemies and verse versa. this study employs critical method to evaluate how the situation can be rescued through interreligious dialogue. the research discovers that both christianity and islam ultimately propose to foster interreligious dialogue, and quite certain, little progress has been made so far in nigeria. yet a deeper sense of interreligious dialogue needs to be fostered between the two religions if peace and the long needed social development are to be achieved. keywords: religion, dialogue, islam, muslim, catholicism, nigeria 1. introduction v.c. ogbo (2018, p.42) noted that one of the earliest surviving criticisms of islamic moral values is to be found in the writings of john damascus (676-749) who was familiar with islam and arabic. he noted that the second chapter of his book, the fount of wisdom, titled ―concerning heresies,‖ presents a series of discussions between christians and muslims. john claimed an arabian monk (whom he did not know was bahira) influenced muhammad and viewed the islamic doctrines as nothing more than a hodgepodge culled from the bible (ogbo, 2018, p.42). in tenth and eleventh –century syria, there lived a poet called al-ma‘arri. he became well known for a poetry that was affected by a pervasive pessimism. he labeled religions in general as ‗noxious weeds‘ and said that islam does not have a monopoly of truth. he had particular contempt for the ulema, writing that, ―they recite their sacred books, although the fact informs me that these are fiction from first to last. o reason, thou (alone) speaks the truth. then perish the fools who forged the religious traditions or interpreted them (ogbo, 2018, p.42). in his examination of the three faiths, the jewish philosopher, ibn kammuna, offered a critique of islamic values. he reasoned that the sharia was incompatible with the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 principles of justice, and that this undercut the notion of mohammad being the perfect man. there is no proof, according to him, that mohammad attained perfection and the ability to perfect others as claimed (kamuna, 1971, pp.148-149). ibn kammuna thus claimed that people converted to islam from ulterior motives: that is why, to this day we never see anyone converting to islam unless in terror, or in quest of power, or to avoid heavy taxation, or to escape humiliation, or if taken prisoner, or because of infatuation with a muslim woman, or for some similar reason. nor do we see a respected, wealthy and pious non-muslim well versed in both his faith and that of islam, going over to the islamic faith without some of the aforementioned or similar motives (kamuna, 1971, pp.148-149). similarly, maimonides, one of the 12th century thinkers, criticized what he perceived as the lack of virtue in the way muslims rule their societies and relate to one another. in his epistle to yemenite jewry, he refers to mohammad as ‗hameshuga‘ – literary, ‗that mad man‘ (hartman &halkin, 1993, p.5). in of the standard of taste, an essay by david hume, the quran is described as an ‗absurd performance‘ of a pretended prophet who lacked a just sentiment of morals. attending to the narration, hume says, ―we shall soon find that muhammad bestows praise on such instances of treachery, inhumanity, cruelty, revenge, bigotry, as are utterly incompatible with civilized society. no steady rule of right seems there to be attended to; and every action is blamed or praised, so far as it is beneficial or hurtful to the true believers‖ (ogbo, 2008, p.43). the hindu philosopher vivekananda commented on islam as follows: now, some mohammedans are the crudest in this respect, and the most sectarian. their watchword is: ―there is one god, and mohammed is his prophet.‖ everything beyond that not only is bad, but must be destroyed forthwith, at a moment‘s notice, every man or woman who does not exactly believe in that must be killed; everything that does not belong to this worship must be immediately broken; every book that teaches anything else must be burnt. from the pacific to the atlantic, for five hundred years blood ran all over the world. that is ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … mohammedanism. nevertheless, among these mohammedans, wherever there is a philosophic man, he was sure to protest against these cruelties. in that he showed the touch of the divine and realized a fragment of the truth; he was not playing with his religion; for it was not his father‘s religion he was talking, but spoke the truth direct like a man ((ogbo, 2008, p.43). referring to the founder of islam vivekananda further comments that the more selfish a man, the more immoral he is. this, according to him, also applies to race. he observes that that race which is bound down to itself has been the most cruel and the most wicked in the whole world. he then noted that there has not been a religion that has clung to this dualism more than that founded by the prophet of arabia, and that there has not been a religion, which has shed so much blood and has been cruel to other men. he observes that: in the koran there is the doctrine that a man who does not believe these teachings should be killed, it is mercy to kill him! and the surest way to get to heaven, where there are beautiful houris and all sorts of sense enjoyments, is by killing these unbelievers. thinks of the bloodshed there has been in consequence of such beliefs (ogbo, 2008, p.44). dayanand saraswati in fact doubted that there is any connection of islam with god. according to him, had the god of the quran been the lord of all creatures, and been merciful and kind to all, he would ever have commanded the mohammedans to slaughter men of other faith: ―if he is merciful, will he show mercy even to the sinner? if the answer be given in the affirmative, it cannot be true, because further on it is said in the quran, ‗put infidels to sword‘‖ (ogbo, 2008, p.44). in other words, he that does not believe in quran and the prophet mohammad is an infidel; he should therefore be put to death. saraswati then concludes that since the quran sanctions such cruelty to non mohammedans, it can never be the word of god. winston churchill condemning some islamic moral values says that the effects of such values are apparent in many countries: ―improvident habits, slovently systems of agriculture, sluggish methods of commerce, and insecurity of (life and) property exist wherever the followers of the prophet rule or live‖ (ogbo, 2008, p.44). the influence of the religion paralyses the social development of those who follow it. he added that the fact that in mohammedan law every woman must belong to some man as his absolute property – either as a child, a wife, or a concubine – must delay the final extinction of aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 slavery until the faith of islam has ceased to be a great power among men. in his words, ―no stronger retrograde force exists in the world. far from being moribund, mohammedanism is a militant and proselytizing faith…and were it not that christianity is sheltered in the strong arms of science, the science against which it had vainly struggled, the civilization of modern europe might fall, as fell the civilization of ancient rome‖ (ogbo, 2008, p.44-45). according to sadeghhedayat, ―every aspect of life and thought, including women‘s condition, changed after islam. enslaved by men, women were confined to the home. polygamy, injection of fatalistic attitude, mourning, sorrow and grief led people to seek solace in magic, witchcraft, prayer, and supernatural beings‖ (ogbo, 2008, p.45). agreeing, with hedayat that islamic values produces a variety of social ills in the regions it conquered, philip schaff asserts that: ―mohammedanism conquered the fairest portions of the earth by sword and cursed them by polygamy, slavery, despotism and desolation. the moving power of christian mission was; the moving power of islam was fanaticism and brute force (ogbo, 2008, p.45).‖ in the same light, james barton regrets that in islam: man is reduced to a cipher. human agency and human freedom are nullified. right is no longer right because it is right, but because allah wills it to be right…it has become a deadening doctrine of faith. man must believe and pray, but these do not ensure salvation or any benefits except allah wills it…even in the most extreme forms of the augustinian and calvinistic systems there were always present in christianity other elements which prevented the conception of the divine sovereignty from paralyzing the healthy activities of life as the mohammedans doctrine has done (barton, 1918, p.139). during a lecture given at the university of regensburg in 2006, pope benedict xvi quoted an unfavorable remark about islam made at the end of the 14th century by manuel ii palaiologos, the byzantine emperor: ―show me just what muhammad brought that was new, and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached‖ (ogbo, 2008, p.45). benedict xvi was of course an advocate of interreligious dialogue and he believes that through dialogue, we may gain a deeper understanding of each religion and be able to relate better with one another in the society. much of misunderstanding in nigeria today which has been responsible to various crises is a result of lack of understanding and mutual coexistence between the two major ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … religious traditions in the country, namely islam and christianity. the bone of contention in most cases is the exclusive claim to the truth of divine revelation by adherents of each of these religious groups. rather than bring peace and development, such a development contributes in keeping nigeria backward. this attitude of rejecting the tenets of other religions and placing one‘s own religion first had been a problem confronting humanity from early times. during a quarrel between muhammad and some meccans, the meccans inquired from some jews who visited and said to them: ―jewish people, you are the first scripture people and know our quarrel with muhammad. is our religion better or his?‖ (kenny, 1997, p.75). they jews said to them, ―your religion is between than his, and you are more in the right‖ (kenny, 1997, p.75). the issue here is the claim that one‘s religion is better than other religions. the people of mecca believed that their religion was superior to that preached by muhammad. the jews who were equally suspicious of the islamic religion did not hesitate to subordinate islam to the meccan religion. you find out that people regarded some religious tradition as inferior to others. muhammad too was not an exception. about the jews came the qur‘an verse (4:51-2, 54-5) : have you not seen those who were given part of the scripture? they believe in jibt and taghut and say to the unbelievers that these are better guided than those who believe. god has caused them…and they jealous of what god has given some people in his favour? (that is prophecy) we gave the family of abraham the scripture and wisdom and a great kingdom. some of them believe in it, while other turn from it and hell will suffice for their burning (kenny, 1997, p.75). in the above passage, we find that the qu‘ran in regards adherents of other religions as unbelievers. for the holy book, only the muslims are true believers. this passage also accuses the jews of jealousy of the gift of prophecy which god has given to mohammad and condemns nonbelievers to hell fire. such is the outcome of the situation whereby dialogue is excluded in the relation between various religions in the society. thus, a fundamental concern in the dialogue between christians and muslims in nigeria is the competing claim to the truth of the beliefs of the different religions. are the claims of each tradition being the only source of theological truth justified? with this basic theological question in view, this word is divided into six sections. the first is the introduction. the section looks at the meaning and definition of interreligious dialogue. the third and the fourth present the fundamental teachings of the catholic church and islam respectively on interreligious dialogue. in this section attention is paid to the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 vatican documents and post vatican documents on the one hand, as well as the koran and writings of islamic scholars on the other hand. the fifth section considers the experience of interreligious dialogue in nigeria by both christians and muslims, while the last section is the conclusion. interreligious dialogue is all about human interaction and relationships (fults, 2020). thus, as sandi fults (2020) noted, it can take place between individuals and communities and it can feature on different levels. it can take place in both formal and informal settings, for instance, in schools, in our working places, between neighbors, etc. dialogue is therefore expedient inasmuch as we come into daily contact with each other in the course of life (fults, 2020). now, that muslims and christians in nigeria share many things in common including the environment, school, market, workplace, political party is incontestable. in the words of fults (2020), ―muslims and christians live on the same streets; use the same shops, buses and schools.‖ interreligious dialogue, therefore, becomes ―part of daily life during which different cultural and religious groups interact with each other directly, and where tensions between them are the most tangible.‖ this tension may be a result of the conscious or unconscious belief that one‘s religion is better off than the others‘. the question, however, is: can such a claim be justified? with this in mind this study is divided into six sections. the first is the introduction. the section looks at the meaning and definition of interreligious dialogue. the third and the fourth present the fundamental teachings of the catholic church and islam respectively on interreligious dialogue. in this section attention is paid to the vatican documents and post vatican documents on the one hand, as well as the koran and writings of islamic scholars on the other hand. the fifth section considers the experience of interreligious dialogue in nigeria by both christians and muslims, while the last section is the conclusion. 2. meaning of interreligious dialogue the term ―dialogue‖ can be understood as that which involves the recognition of difference not as a way of foreclosing engagement, but as a way of seeing and engaging with each other (awoke, et al. 2020, p.113). interreligious dialogue ―is about people of different faiths coming to a mutual understanding and respect that allows them to live and cooperate with each other in spite of their differences (fult, 2020).according to sandi fults, interreligious dialogue is a challenging process by which adherents of different religious traditions encounter each other in order to break down the walls of division that stand at the center of most wars (fults, 2020). interreligious dialogue, thus, is an interactive process by which people of varied religious traditions try to understand themselves so that religion may not be an instrument of division but of peace in the society. for, as fults (2020) rightly observes, ―the objective of interreligious dialogue is peace.‖ it follows, then, that interreligious dialogue can take different forms. hence, fults writes: ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … interreligious dialogue has many faces. two people can come together and share the aspects of their respective faiths and struggle to understand that which s foreign. theologians can write papers, publish in journals, and convene to discuss the finer theological issues related to interreligious dialogue (and there are a multitude of theological issues). perhaps members of one faith tradition can join with members of another religion to improve a neighborhood…each of the above example is a form of interreligious dialogue (fults, 2020). from here it is clear that the invitation to dialogue is extended to everyone and not an exclusive preserve of the religious leaders. hence, the clarification which fults provides with regard to this point cannot be ignored. he further remarks that interreligious dialogue ―refers to cooperative and positive interaction between people of different religious traditions…at both the individual and institutional level‖ (fults, 2020). the methodology for dialogue which fults provides is of particular importance. he remarks that in the process of dialogue, it is importance that each of the participants makes no attempt to evangelize the others, as this tendency for evangelism is often accompanied by an attitude of exclusive superiority, namely ―the spoken or unspoken belief that one‘s religion…the only way in the ultimate sense of the term (fults, 2020). it is in line with the above assumption that fults provides some general guidelines for effective interreligious dialogue. some of these are worthy of our mention here (fults, 2020): i. participants in interreligious dialogue cannot use the encounter as opportunities to defend their own traditions. ii. interreligious dialogue should not be seen as a means to defend religion in general. iii. although conversion is not the goal of interreligious dialogue, yet it is possible that it may take place as participants may find themselves transformed by the interfaith encounter. iv. dialogue participants must reveal the beliefs that they hold closest and that define their tradition. v. since interreligious dialogue is an expression of the participant‘s lived faith, it should form communities of awareness, keeping in mind that it is not a philosophical, theological or intellectual exercise. vi. since peace is the goal of interreligious dialogue, the process must be peaceful this is why fults emphases that in interreligious dialogue, ―each party remains true to their own beliefs while respecting the right of the other to practice their faith freely‖ aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 (fults, 2020) see also otu, 2006, p.137). similarly, the pontifical council for interreligious dialogue (pcid) describes four forms of dialogue so that all can find a method that suits their experience: the dialogue of life, the dialogue of action, the dialogue of theological exchange, and the dialogue of religious experience (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). 3. interreligious dialogue in catholicism one cannot underestimate the impact of the church‘s interreligious undertaking in today‘s increasingly globalized world, especially as the vast human society finds itself everyday more intimately connected across the geographical, cultural and religious boundaries (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). the necessity of catholic church involvement in bringing about healing cause by division and misunderstanding in a world filled with conflict and tension is highlighted by pope francis in his september 1, 2013, angelus message (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). according to him, ―it is neither a culture of confrontation nor a culture of conflict which builds harmony within and between peoples, but rather a culture of encounter and a culture of dialogue; this is the only way to peace‖ (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). the church‘s relationship with the communities of other religious traditions was impacted by the second vatican council‘s 1965 declaration on the relation of the church to non christian religions, nostra aetate (united states conference of catholic bishops, 2020). as idara out (2006, p.135) remarks, ―in nostra aetate, the council recognized that the church shares certain basic truths and values with other religions, and that humans share a common desire to probe the ultimate mystery of life.‖here, the catholic church encourages her members in dialogue and collaboration with members of other religions. she believes that there are certain elements about other religious traditions which are good and true. the goal of the church, then, is to foster bonds of friendship, mutual understanding, and constructive collaboration among the world‘s religions in the genuine service of humanity (otu, 2006, p.135). moreover, ―all men form but one community. this is because all stem from the one stock which god created to people the entire earth (cf. acts 17:26), and also because all share in a common destiny, namely god (flannery, 2001, no.1). furthermore, in nostra aetate we read: ―the catholic church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions. she has a high regard for the manner of life and conduct, the precepts and doctrine which, although differing in many ways from her own teaching, nevertheless, often reflect a ray of that truth which enlightens all men‖ (flannery, 2001, no.1). the relationship with islamic religion is particularly emphasized: the church also has a high regard for the muslims. they worship god, who is one, living and subsistent, merciful and almighty, the creator of heaven and ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … earth, who has also spoken to men. they try to submit themselves without reserve to the hidden decrees of god, just as abraham submitted himself to god‘s plan, to whose faith muslims eagerly link their own (flannery, 2001, no.3). what the council fathers are saying is that the catholic church does not which to discriminate against the muslims. for, as a matter of fact they have a lot in common with us; and even with regard to the differences, the church still recognize the truth in some of these and has high regard for them. recognizing the many quarrels which have arisen between christians and muslims, the catholic church now wishes to enter into dialogue with the muslims in order to achieve a mutual understanding for the benefit of all. the council concludes ―…let them together preserve and promote peace, liberty, social justice and moral values‖ (flannery, 2001, no.3). idaraotu (2006, p.134) remarked that this welcome development was not the case prior to the vatican ii council. he says: vatican ii teachings on the relations of the church with other world religions are a watershed in the history of the roman catholic church. prior to the council, the church had adopted a cautionary and condemnary stand in its attitudes towards other religions…with the convocation of vatican ii, the church signaled a shift from the theological presupposition of extra ecclesia nullasalus (outside the church there is no salvation) towards the recognition of the possibility of salvation both outside the church and from non-christian religions (otu, 2006, p.134). reiterating the same point, thomas reese says, ―for us, religious freedom is a matter of church teaching. we have to observe it, we have to respect it; whereas before vatican ii, we were not very respectful of religious freedom‖ (poggiloi, 2009). with nostra aetate, therefore, ―the church sets its foot on the path of dialogue with other world religions‖ (otu, 2006, p.134). turning our attention to the post vatican ii documents, we find the same attitude of invitation to dialogue and collaboration. in its 1984 document, the attitude of the church towards the followers of other religions, the pontifical council for interreligious dialogue defined four kinds of dialogue: dialogue of life, dialogue of action, dialogue of theological experience, and dialogue of religious experience (secretariat for non-christians, 1895). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 pope benedict xvi added emphasis on being a pilgrim church journeying toward ―the fullness of truth‖ in friendship with ―fellow pilgrims‖ of other religions; appealing to the church in africa to live in respect and peace with muslims (otu, 2006, p.144). now, pope francis expands the dialogue further by emphasizing the fact that we all are pilgrims journeying together, seeking the radiant peace of god‘s face (otu, 2006, p.147). hence, he expounded the need to develop a sense of ―friendship‖ as a foundation for the dialogue that addresses the social ills of our world (otu, 2006, p.147). 4. interreligious dialogue in islam like catholicism, the emergence of dialogue in islam took a gradual process. it was altogether absent ab initio. for instance, during a quarrel between muhammad and some meccans, the meccans inquired from some jews who visited and said to them: ―jewish people, you are the first scripture people and know our quarrel with muhammad. is our religion better or his?‖ (kenny, 1997, p.75). the jews said to them, ―your religion is better than his, and you are more in the right‖ (kenny, 1997, p.75). the issue here is the claim that one‘s religion is better than other religions. the people of mecca believed that their religion was superior to that preached by muhammad. the jews who were equally suspicious of the islamic religion did not hesitate to subordinate islam to the meccan religion. you find out that people regarded some religious tradition as inferior to others. muhammad too was not an exception. about the jews came the qur‘an verse (4:51-2, 54 5) : have you not seen those who were given part of the scripture? they believe in jibt and taghut and say to the unbelievers that these are better guided than those who believe. god has caused them…and they jealous of what god has given some people in his favour? (that is prophecy) we gave the family of abraham the scripture and wisdom and a great kingdom. some of them believe in it, while other turn from it and hell will suffice for their burning (kenny, 1997, p.75). in the above passage, we find that the qu‘ran in regards adherents of other religions as unbelievers. for the holy book, only the muslims are true believers. this passage also accuses the jews of jealousy of the gift of prophecy which god has given to mohammad and condemns nonbelievers to hell fire. such is the outcome of the situation whereby dialogue is excluded in the relation between various religions in the society. thus, a fundamental concern in the dialogue between christians and muslims in nigeria is the competing claim to the truth of the beliefs of the different religions. nowadays, however, islam like catholicism has embraced dialogue as a necessary tool for peaceful coexistence with other religions. the qur‘an actually places emphasis on brotherhood and unity and ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … makes invitation for peaceful coexistence among believers. thus, in sura:49, ayat 10, we read that ―the believers are but a single brotherhood: so make peace and reconciliation between your two (contending) brothers; and fear god, that you may receive mercy‖ (mohammad, ? p.45). this passage is an invitation to dialogue among believers. in line with pope francis‘ call for fraternal brotherhood, the qur‘an calls us for reconciliation and peace, and these can only come about through dialogue. in the political realm, however, islam has been used as a tool for confrontation with, and conquest of others (kenny, 1997, p.45).but although the qur‘an speaks of differences as real, it condemns the use of the notion of ―difference‖ as a pretext to demonize or subjugate others (monti, 2019). turning our attention to the writings of islamic scholars, we also find the same attitude of invitation to dialogue and collaboration. according to monti, islam as a religion arose within the milieu where, among the arabs, there were christian and jewish communities who professed monotheism not practiced by other tribes (monti, 2019). people who eventually became muslims were always aware of many of the figures that were part of jewish and christian such as abraham and hagar; after the rise of islam these figures became integral to the belief system of the new religion even though they were now seen through a slightly different interpretative lens (monti, 2019). historically speaking, islam, while recognizing these religions, sought to engage with their adherents and even referred to them as part of the family of religions (ahl-i-kitab) (monti, 2019). this is the context in which this study locates islam‘s position on interreligious dialogue. in this sense, islam has been dialogical from its very inception. 5. experience of interreligious dialogue in nigeria with regard to interreligious dialogue in nigeria, we can speak of both successes and failures. every religious tradition has grown through the ages in (dialogue and) historical interaction with others. christians, muslims and members of other religious communities, have shared not only villages and cities, but ideas of god and divine revelation. hence, hans kung‘s opinion that: ―there will be no peace among the nations without peace among the religions; there will be no peace among the religions without dialogue among the religions‖ (monti, 2019), becomes very relevant. with this in mind, we shall have a look at the experiences of both islam and catholicism in nigeria on interreligious dialogue looking primarily at their successes and challenges. one of the fundamental problems standing between christian-muslim relationships in nigeria is the claim of each religion to be the only source of theological truth. idaraotu made a similar observation when he remarked, with reference to the church in africa, that ―the main potential barrier to dialogue is the tendency of one of either religions to lay claim to exclusivity of revelation‖ (otu, 2006, p.141). this claim can hardly be justified. rather, the existence of both religions should be understood as an effect of interaction between different points of view and common effort of looking for the answers to the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 question about god and his relation to the world. in this way, the role of dialogue cannot be reduced to only a politically correct element but may be something more essential – the basis of reasonable existence and development of religions. a number of successes have therefore been recorded in this regard. here in nigeria there is the bishops commission for ecumenism and interreligious relations (igwe, 2018). many nigerian dioceses have similar commissions to implement the church‘s teaching in response to the particular multi-religious mix in their respective territories. their mandate is to foster relations with the leaders and congregations of other religions, organize joint services to celebrate national events and to show a united religious response to local, national and international tragedies, publish messages on interfaith/interreligious relations and to promote the church‘s teaching on interreligious dialogue. the following successes have been achieved:  the study of islam is undertaken in major institutions such as seminary schools  many christians now come to the understanding that there can be salvation outside the confines of christianity  christians and muslims coexist in one political party in nigeria in search of common good  during elections into political offices in nigeria, as was observed in the 2019 general elections, many christians happily voted muslims into political offices  catholic clergy take up further studies in islam in other to deepen our understanding of the islamic faith the above successes notwithstanding, and irrespective of the fact that there is a commission for ecumenism and interreligious relations in nigeria, from all indication little or no dialogue has been going on in recent times among christians and muslims in the country. hence, clashes, killings and political exclusion base on religion have characterized interreligious relationships. therefore, bearing in mind that it is not religion per say that causes conflict, but individuals who exploit religion for personal, commercial and political gains, efforts should be made in the spirit of love to meet the following challenges:  the study of religions other than one‘s religion should be extended to other institutions in nigeria beginning from secondary schools  children in primary school levels should be thought to respect and value religions other than the one they profess  catholics should get more involved in politics in order to contribute their quota in seeing that nigerian constitution permits interreligious studies in early school age of our children and to ensure that the religious tenets of a particular group is not imposed on others by the constitution  church leaders should learn to preach the message of love towards other religious adherents and highlight the need to forgive past mistakes. ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between …  the church should stand against violence and terrorism perpetrated in the name of religion. religion cannot justify intolerance or war; ―we cannot kill in god‘s name‖ (benedict xvi, 2010, p.120) see also (onayekan, 2011, p.46). 6. conclusion one of the fundamental problems standing between christian-muslim relationships in nigeria is the claim of each religion to be the only source of theological truth. idaraotu made a similar observation when he remarked, with reference to the church in africa, that ―the main potential barrier to dialogue is the tendency of one of either religions to lay claim to exclusivity of revelation‖ (otu, 2006, p.141). the study observes that since nigerians live in a community consisting of christians and muslims, there is need for mutual respect for each religion and this can only be achieved through dialogue. rather than sounding the alarm about the strength of christians as is often the case, it would be better to exert oneself for development of the country (buhimann, 1997, p.135), and this can hardly come about except we live in mutual understanding – except we engage in interreligious dialogue. similarly, it should be noted that reformism becomes islamism from the moment it adopt a specific program of introducing an islamic society to the exclusion of all others, from the moment it directs its energies towards the full application of sharia and the establishment of an islamic state (stamer, 1996, p.66). this development is contrary to the true spirit of interreligious dialogue which demands freedom of belief and religion. being the most religious nation in the world (onaiyekan, 2011, p.37), nigeria should as well be an exemplary nation, a true light of the world.the study started by defining the term interreligious dialogue. it then goes further to examine how it is welcomed or rejected in both catholicism and islam. it has been established in this regard that fundamentally, the catholic as well as islam is a promoter of interreligious dialogue. how this reality is lived in nigerian experience was then examined with regard to which the study identifies not only strengths but also some weaknesses. the purpose of the vatican ii document, nostra aetate, is given in its first paragraph as an examination of the relation which the church has to non-christian religions (flannery, no.1). this is motivated by the church‘s desire to foster unity and charity among individuals since all shares in a common destiny, namely god (flannery, no.1). it is a profound awareness of this divine being, god that gave rise to religions in the first place including hinduism, buddhism, and other religions found throughout the world. the document remarks that: ―the catholic church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions…yet she proclaims and is duty bound to proclaim without fail, christ who is the way, the truth and the life (flannery, no.2). based on this, the church urges her sons and daughters to enter into dialogue and collaboration with members of other religions, aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 with prudence and charity. concerning the muslims, the document identifies great similarity between their faith and the faith of the church and urges that ―a sincere effort be made to achieve mutual understanding‖ ((flannery, no.3) with them. it also acknowledges the common spiritual heritage which the church shares with jews and calls also for mutual understanding and appreciation through dialogue (flannery, no.4). god, in whose image we are all created, is the father of all (flannery, no.5). hence, there is no bases whatsoever for any discrimination. this study thus condemns all forms of discrimination on the basis of religion. this is because we all are god‘s children as we are all created in his image and likeness. god becomes our common father. therefore, there is no ground for discriminations because we are brothers and sisters. moreover, there are certain things which are good and holy from other religions such as islam and judaism. however, this does not mean we can compromise the gospel of christ. although there may be some misunderstandings in the past, the surest means to true friendship is mutual dialogue. ogbo fostering interreligious dialogue between … references awoke, e.e., okodo, m.o. okeke, j.p. (2020). ―african traditional religion in dialogue with christianity: divergences and convergences,‖ journal of african theology, vol.29, pp.112-126. barton, j.l. (1918). the christian approach to islam. chicago: the pilgrim press. buhimann, w. (1997).the search for god: an encounter with the peoples and religious of asian. new york: orbis books. fults, sandi. (2020).―what is interreligious dialogue?‖ http://www.coistine.ie/whatisinterreligious-dialogue. accessed october 5, 2020. hartman, d. &halkin, a. (1993).epistles of maimonides: crisis and leadership. jerusalem: jewish publication society, idaraotu, (2006). ―magisterial teaching on the interreligious dialogue: from the african synod to pope francis‘ visit,‖ in african ecclesial review, vol.58, nos.3&4, pp.132-155. kammuna, i. (1971).examination of the three faith. los angeles: macmillan press. kenny, j. (1997).early islam: background, the life of muhammad, the umayyad and abbasid caliphates echoes today. ibadan: dominican publications, monti, nicolas. ―islam and inter-religious dialogue: a muslim perspective‖ in st francis and the sultan, 1219-2019: a commemorative booklet (2019), https://ofm.org/blog/islam-and-inter-religious-dialogue-a-muslim perspeective. accessed july 15, 2020. nazar, mohammad c.h. (ed.), commandments by god in quran (publication details not provided). ogbo, v.c. (2018).―on religion and morality,‖ in i.a. kanu and j.o.e. ndubisi, religion, morality and peace-building in africa: ambiguities and the imperfect human condition. mauritius: lap lambert academic publishing, pp.31-56. onaiyekan, j.o.(2011). ―harnessing the power of religions in africa,‖ abuja journal of philosophy and theology, vol.1, pp.35-57. stamer, p.j. (1996). islam in sub-saharan africa. spain: konigstein. secretariat for non-christians, (1985) the attitude of the church towards the followers of other religions: reflections and orientations on dialogue and mission, (vatican city), https://journals.sagepub.com (july 11, 2020), p.xix. united states conference of catholic bishops,(2020) ecumenical & interreligious affairs,―interreligious,‖https://www.usccb.org/committees/ecumenical-inter religiousaffairs/interrreligious. accessed november 29, 2020. vatican ii, declaration on the relation of the church to non-christian religions, (2001). nostra aetate, no.1, in flannery a. vatican council ii: the conciliar and post conciliar documents bandra, mumbai: st pauls.sylvia poggioli, ―nostra aetate‖ (2019), https://text.npr.org/s.php?sld=453448972.accessed july 6, 2020. http://www.coistine.ie/what-%09is-interreligious-dialogue http://www.coistine.ie/what-%09is-interreligious-dialogue http://www.coistine.ie/what-%09is-interreligious-dialogue https://ofm.org/blog/islam-and-inter-religious-dialogue-a-muslim-%09perspeective https://ofm.org/blog/islam-and-inter-religious-dialogue-a-muslim-%09perspeective https://journals.sagepub.com/ https://www.usccb.org/committees/ecumenical-inter%20%09religiousaffairs/interrreligious https://www.usccb.org/committees/ecumenical-inter%20%09religiousaffairs/interrreligious https://text.npr.org/s.php?sld=453448972 aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 abstract in the southeast region of nigeria, conflicts between various ethnic groups, have been prevalent in recent years. these conflicts have resulted in displacement, economic disruption, and the loss of lives and properties. despite various peace-building and conflict management efforts by the nigerian government, civil society organizations, and international bodies, conflicts continue to occur in nigeria. it is necessary to re-examine the current peacemaking and conflict management approaches to identify the gaps, especially from the youth population which has not receive much attention. the methodology adopted is the content analysis approach. the paper adopted the social identity theory (sit) as its theoretical framework. the theory provides a useful framework for understanding the role of group identity in conflict and peacebuilding. the findings of the study revealed that youths have the potential to play an important role in peacebuilding and conflict management in south-east nigeria. the paper concludes that there is a need to involve young people in peace-building efforts as well as to promote their participation. it recommends that youths should be involved in decision-making processes at all levels of government and civil society as this can help to ensure that their voices are heard and their perspectives considered in policies that affect them. keywords: peacemaking, peacebuilding, conflict management, youth, south-east, nigeria introduction the history of nigeria has been characterized by various forms of conflicts ranging from ethno-religious clashes, political violence, to communal conflicts, which have resulted in the loss of lives and properties (okolie, 2018). the conflict in nigeria has been attributed to several factors, including resource control, ethno-religious intolerance, and political marginalization, among others (uzoechi & nwankwo, 2020). in the southeast region of nigeria, conflicts between various ethnic groups, have been prevalent in recent years. the southeast region of nigeria is home to various ethnic groups, including the igbo, the efik, and the ibibio, among others. the region has witnessed various forms of conflicts, including conflicts between farmers and herders, inter-communal conflicts, and political violence, among others (umejesi, 2019). these conflicts have resulted in displacement, economic disruption, and the loss of lives and properties (ibeanu & otutu, 2020). despite various peace-building and conflict management efforts by the nigerian government, civil society organizations, and international bodies, conflicts continue to occur in nigeria. there is a need to re-examine the current peacemaking and conflict management approaches to identify the gaps and the opportunities to involve other actors re-examining peacemaking and conflict management: the role of youth in peace building and process in south-east nigeria lawal akor john nasarawa state university keffi institute of governance and development 217 who can contribute to peace-building efforts. one such group that has not received much attention is the youth population. as adedeji (2018) puts it, young people have often been marginalized in peace processes and conflict management efforts, with their contributions overlooked or undervalued. the exclusion of young people from peace-building efforts is a missed opportunity to tap into the potential of a significant population in nigeria. the youth population in nigeria represents a significant proportion of the population, with estimates indicating that over 60% of nigerians are below the age of 30 (population reference bureau, 2021). therefore, the role of youth in peace-building and conflict management cannot be underestimated. young people have the potential to contribute to peace-building processes in various ways, including promoting dialogue, inter-group understanding, and community building (un, 2015). in south-east nigeria, there is a need to explore the role of young people in peace-building and conflict management and to identify ways to promote their participation in such efforts. the aim of this study is to re-examine the current peacemaking and conflict management approaches in southeast nigeria, and to identify the role of youth in peace-building and conflict management. the paper is segmented into five sections, beginning with the introduction. the second section clarifies the relevant concepts, while the third section explains the methodology used. the fourth section discussed the subject matter, while the fifth section concludes the paper. conceptual clarification: peace making and peace building peacemaking in nigeria refers to the efforts aimed at resolving conflicts and promoting peaceful coexistence among different groups in the country. nigeria is a diverse country, with over 250 ethnic groups, and has experienced various forms of conflicts, including inter-communal conflicts, political violence, religious conflicts, and conflicts between farmers and herders, among others (olonisakin, 2015). according to licklider (2020), peacemaking is "the process of bringing parties to a conflict to the negotiating table and facilitating the resolution of the conflict through dialogue and compromise.” according to svensson and wallensteen (2020), peacemaking is the proactive process of starting, facilitating, and maintaining negotiations with the goal of resolving disputes and producing peaceful solutions. according to galtung and richmond (2020), peacemaking is a dynamic and interactive process that entails the recognition and transformation of conflict's underlying causes, the development of mutual trust between parties, and the negotiation of a lasting peace deal. lederach (2015) defines peacemaking as the art of intervening in conflicts in ways that change interpersonal dynamics, address underlying grievances, and pave the road for enduring peace is known as peacemaking. according to wall (2019), peacemaking is a process of reconciliation that entails altering interpersonal dynamics and resolving disputes via discussion, negotiation, and compromise. 218 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june since peace peacebuilding requires peace, it is impossible to achieve peace without it. in other words, as peace can only be built upon when it already exists, peace is crucial or at the core of peacebuilding. since there is no consensus among academics on what constitutes an appropriate definition of "peace," the concept has been defined in a number of different ways. the word "pax," which means a treaty, pact, or agreement to end a war, dispute, or conflict between or among people, groups of people, or states in latin, is the source of the expression. also, it promotes tranquillity in general. to put it another way, for there to be peace, there needs to be an atmosphere devoid of tumult and confusion, with no restrictions or barriers preventing people from going about their daily lives. peace is defined by ibeanu (2006) as initiatives to minimize conflict and promote development in specific societies and the larger international community. thus, peace is essential for ensuring social, political, and economic advancement. ahamefule (2013) defined a condition of peace as one without war, in which nobody is upset by others, and in which there is tranquillity, free from fears or anxiety. brinkmann (2006) defined peacebuilding as the transformation of a violent state or situation into one that fosters better political, socioeconomic equality, justice, fairness, and security for all people within a diverse cultural milieu. brinkmann takes it a step further by identifying two parts of peacebuilding. he asserts that the first component of peacebuilding is focused on lessening or modifying violence, while the second part of peacebuilding is focused on enhancing already existing peaceful activities or to inspire new ones. the importance of timing should be emphasized when planning and carrying out peacebuilding activities because some will provide beneficial results straight away while others won't be obvious for some time. boutros-ghali (1992) asserts that peacebuilding acts as a conduit for the repair of places or things harmed by conflict. it is a process of identifying and fostering those institutions that will reinforce, bolster, and cement peace in order to prevent a return into war. according to doyle and sambanis (1999), peacebuilding requires "the prior establishment of a minimal level of peace." to put it another way, while upholding peace is crucial to establishing it, failing to do so will have the opposite effect by calcifying a conflict over time and making peacebuilding challenging. according to lederach (1997), peacebuilding is a "long-term, gradual, and sustainable process that seeks to address the root causes of violent conflict and to create a social system that is just, equitable, and peaceful." galtung (1996) defines peacebuilding as "the establishment of structures and systems that provide for the resolution of conflicts without resorting to violence, and that address the root causes of conflict in a way that promotes justice, human rights, and sustainable development." ramsbotham, woodhouse, and miall (2016) describe peacebuilding as "the use of non-violent methods to manage and transform conflicts, to address the underlying causes of violence, and to promote a sustainable and just peace.” paris and sisk (2009) define peacebuilding as "the deliberate and sustained effort to prevent the outbreak, recurrence, or continuation of violent conflict, and to address its 219 lawal re-examining peacemaking and conflict management... root causes through a range of political, social, and economic strategies." according to bercovitch and jackson (2009), peacebuilding involves "a broad range of activities that aim to create conditions that are conducive to peaceful relations among parties in conflict, and to prevent, manage, or resolve conflicts in a manner that promotes reconciliation, justice, and social change.” conflict management conflict management, according to coleman and ferguson (2015), is the act of recognizing, discussing, and resolving conflicts or disagreements that develop between people, groups, or organizations in a way that is positive, courteous, and mutually beneficial. conflict management, according to gurr and cole (2019), is the proactive and reactive work done by both individuals and groups to avoid, control, and settle disagreements and conflicts. conflict management is the art of handling disagreements and conflicts in a way that reduces the likelihood of violence, addresses the root causes of the conflict, and fosters collaboration and cooperation between parties, according to kriesberg (2020). according to moore (2014), the process of developing and putting into practice tactics that allow disputing parties to converse amicably, comprehend one another's viewpoints, and work toward a mutually agreeable resolution. conflict management is the act of handling conflicts, disagreements, or differences between people, groups, or organizations using a range of strategies, such as negotiation, mediation, and arbitration, according to wall and callister (2017). conflict management, according to rahim (2017), is the act of detecting, addressing, and resolving conflicts or disputes that arise between individuals or organizations utilizing a range of approaches, such as negotiation, mediation, and arbitration. by controlling how parties interact, communicate, and bargain with one another, wilmot and hocker (2018) describe conflict management as the process of minimizing the negative effects of conflict and maximizing its positive potential. according to lederach (2015), the practice of handling conflict in a way that fosters connections, comprehension, and original problem-solving rather than confrontation or violence. according to deutsch (2017), conflict management is the process of addressing and resolving disagreements between parties with the aim of achieving a win-win outcome. methodology the methodology adopted for the study is qualitative. data were gathered from secondary sources like journals, official websites, and literary works, documentary and newspapers. every single piece of information gathered for this study is pertinent to it. content analysis and thematic approach were largely engaged. theoretical framework the study adopts the social identity theory (sit) as its theoretical framework. the theory provides a useful framework for understanding the role of youth in peacemaking and conflict management. sit posits that people's social identity, or the groups to which 220 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june they belong, can shape their attitudes and behaviours towards in-group and out-group members (tajfel & turner, 1986). in the context of this research topic, youth in southeast nigeria may identify with different social groups based on their ethnicity, religion, and regional affiliations. these social identities can influence their attitudes and behaviours towards people from other groups, and in turn, can impact conflict and peacebuilding efforts. according to sit, people strive to maintain a positive social identity, which can involve favouring their in-group over out-groups (tajfel & turner, 1986). this can lead to intergroup conflict, as groups may compete for resources and status. in the context of southeast nigeria, conflicts have been attributed to factors such as resource control, ethnoreligious intolerance, and political marginalization (uzoechi & nwankwo, 2020). these factors can exacerbate inter-group tensions and lead to violence. however, sit also suggests that people can adopt a superordinate identity that transcends their individual group identities and fosters cooperation between groups (tajfel & turner, 1986). in the context of south-east nigeria, youth can potentially adopt a shared identity as nigerians that transcends their regional, ethnic, and religious identities. this superordinate identity can facilitate collaboration and cooperation in peacemaking efforts. moreover, sit proposes that inter-group contact can reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations, particularly when certain conditions are met, such as equal status between groups and common goals (pettigrew & tropp, 2006). in the context of southeast nigeria, youth from different social groups can work together towards common goals such as promoting peace and reducing violence. this can help to break down intergroup barriers and promote cooperation. the theory highlights the ways in which group membership can influence perceptions, attitudes, and behaviours, including in the context of conflict and peacebuilding (haslam, 2001). social identity theory can be useful for identifying potential avenues for promoting intergroup harmony and reducing conflict. by recognizing the importance of social identity in shaping intergroup behaviour, interventions can be designed to target specific aspects of identity that may contribute to conflict (haslam, 2001). for example, efforts to promote a shared sense of national identity may help to reduce ethnic or regional tensions in nigeria. one potential weakness of social identity theory is that it may oversimplify the complex and multifaceted nature of conflict. conflict can arise from a wide range of factors beyond just group identity, including economic, political, and historical factors (bar-tal, 2013). focusing solely on group identity may therefore overlook other important factors that contribute to conflict. additionally, social identity theory has been criticized for being too deterministic and emphasizing the role of group membership in shaping behaviour, rather than individual agency (bar-tal, 2013). this may overlook the ways in which individuals can resist or 221 lawal re-examining peacemaking and conflict management... challenge group norms and identities. the theory is, however appropriate to the study as provides a useful framework for understanding the role of group identity in conflict and peacebuilding. it also emphasizes the importance of social categorization and identification in shaping intergroup behaviour. peacemaking and conflict management in south-east nigeria peacemaking and conflict management in south east nigeria have been ongoing issues due to various factors such as resource control, political marginalization, and ethnoreligious intolerance (uzoechi & nwankwo, 2020). the region has experienced violent conflicts over the years, including the biafran war, the niger delta militancy, and the clashes between farmers and herders. one of the key challenges to peacemaking and conflict management in the region has been the involvement of youth in violent activities. however, youth can also play a critical role in peacebuilding and conflict management through various strategies. one such strategy is the involvement of youth in peace dialogues, which can help to bridge the gap between conflicting groups (onuoha, 2020). additionally, youth-led initiatives can be effective in building trust and promoting reconciliation among communities affected by conflict (bergenwall & nilsson, 2020). efforts to promote peace and stability in south east nigeria have also involved the government and various stakeholders. for instance, the establishment of the niger delta development commission (nddc) was aimed at addressing the economic and social marginalization of the region (ibekwe, 2020). additionally, the government has set up various peacebuilding and conflict resolution mechanisms such as the national peace committee and the national human rights commission (uzoechi & nwankwo, 2020). the government and international organizations have made efforts to address conflicts in the region through various initiatives, such as disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (ddr) programs, peace conferences, and peacebuilding projects (uzoechi & nwankwo, 2020). however, these efforts have not fully addressed the underlying issues causing conflicts, such as political marginalization, ethnic tensions, and resource control. in addition, the role of youth in peacemaking and conflict management has not been fully recognized. youth in the region have been affected by the conflicts, with many being recruited into armed groups or being displaced from their homes. however, they also have the potential to contribute to peacebuilding efforts, as they have the energy, creativity, and innovative ideas to tackle the root causes of conflicts (okeke, 2019). despite efforts by the government, peacemaking and conflict management in south east nigeria continue to face challenges. some of these challenges include limited resources for peacebuilding initiatives, weak institutional frameworks, and political instability (onuoha, 2020). therefore, there is a need for continued efforts towards sustainable peacebuilding and conflict management in the region. 222 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june the roles of youths in peacebuilding in south-east nigeria the roles of youth in peacebuilding and conflict management in south east nigeria are varied and complex. below are some of the key roles that youth can play in these processes, along with relevant in-text citations and references: ·bridging divides between communities: youth can act as bridges between different communities by promoting dialogue, building relationships, and creating networks for peace (okorie & chukwuocha, 2021). by doing so, they can help to reduce tensions and foster greater understanding between groups. ·promoting non-violent conflict resolution: youth can promote non-violent conflict resolution strategies, such as mediation, negotiation, and dialogue, which can help to de-escalate conflicts and reduce the likelihood of violence (onyekwelu et al., 2019). they can also advocate for peaceful means of conflict resolution and work to prevent the spread of rumors and misinformation that can fuel violence. ·advocating for social justice: youth can play a key role in advocating for social justice and addressing the root causes of conflict, such as inequality, poverty, and discrimination. they can mobilize for change, raise awareness of injustices, and promote policies and programs that address these issues (uzoechi & nwankwo, 2020). ·building resilience: youth can build resilience in their communities by promoting a sense of cohesion, hope, and empowerment. they can engage in activities such as community service, sports, and cultural events that help to foster a sense of pride and unity (akpan, 2018). by doing so, they can help to build a stronger foundation for peace and reduce the likelihood of conflict. ·providing alternative narratives: youth can provide alternative narratives to violent extremism and promote peaceful and inclusive ideologies. they can use social media and other platforms to counter extremist messaging and promote messages of tolerance, diversity, and peace (ezeibe & umezinwa, 2020). the role of youth in peacebuilding and conflict management in southeast nigeria can also be analyzed through the lens of participatory approaches to peacebuilding. participatory approaches involve involving all stakeholders, including marginalized groups like youth, in decision-making processes related to peacebuilding and conflict management (lederach, 1997). this approach emphasizes the importance of local ownership and sustainability of peacebuilding efforts, as well as the need for inclusive processes that take into account the needs and perspectives of all members of a community. youth can play a crucial role in participatory approaches to peacebuilding and conflict management by providing their unique perspectives, skills, and energy to peacebuilding efforts (obi, 2012). they can serve as mediators, facilitators, and ambassadors for peace in their communities, and can help bridge divides between different groups. youth can also contribute to conflict prevention efforts by engaging in dialogue and promoting 223 lawal re-examining peacemaking and conflict management... understanding between groups, as well as by identifying and addressing root causes of conflict. furthermore, youth-led peacebuilding initiatives have the potential to be more effective and sustainable than top-down approaches, as they are more likely to take into account the specific needs and concerns of young people and other marginalized groups (undp, 2016). by empowering youth to take an active role in peacebuilding and conflict management, communities can build resilience and create a more peaceful and equitable society. overall, the role of youth in peacebuilding and conflict management in southeast nigeria is multifaceted and complex, and requires a comprehensive and participatory approach that takes into account the unique perspectives and contributions of young people. by leveraging the strengths and capabilities of youth, communities in southeast nigeria can build more sustainable and peaceful futures. importance of understanding the role of youth in peacebuilding and conflict management understanding the role of youth in peacebuilding and conflict management is crucial for several reasons. firstly, youth constitute a significant proportion of the population in many conflict-affected regions, and their involvement in peacebuilding efforts can contribute to sustainable peace (agbiboa, 2015). the world bank (2018) added to this when it asserted that youth represent a significant proportion of the population in many conflict-affected countries, and their engagement in peacebuilding can help prevent the recurrence of violence and promote social cohesion. secondly, youth are often the most affected by conflict, with many being exposed to violence, displacement, and other forms of trauma. engaging youth in peacebuilding efforts can provide them with opportunities to address the root causes of the conflict and promote healing and reconciliation (united nations, 2015). in addition, in the lenses of agbiboa (2015), youth have unique perspectives and experiences that can contribute to more effective and sustainable peacebuilding efforts. their perspective can act as complement the perspectives of older generations and contribute to more inclusive and sustainable peacebuilding outcomes (barnes & dovey, 2018). they often have a deep understanding of the social, cultural, and political dynamics of their communities, and can therefore play a critical role in designing and implementing peacebuilding interventions that are context-specific and responsive to the needs of their communities. engaging youth in peacebuilding efforts can help to address the social and economic exclusion that often contributes to conflict. by providing young people with opportunities to participate in peacebuilding activities, they can develop important skills and networks that can contribute to their social and economic well-being, while also promoting social cohesion and community development (united nations, 2015). 224 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june findings from the reviewed literature, it can be inferred that youth have the potential to play an important role in peacebuilding and conflict management in south-east nigeria. moussaoui and adwan (2017), and oduwole and abiodun (2019) further corroborated this when they admitted that youth are often the most affected by conflicts and are also seen as the most active agents of change in building sustainable peace. furthermore, it has been found that the involvement of youth in peacebuilding and conflict management can have positive effects on inter-group relations, increase social cohesion, and promote sustainable development (bajaj & de souza, 2018; hunte & lashley, 2020). however, challenges such as youth marginalization, lack of access to resources, and political instability can hinder their participation in peacebuilding and conflict management efforts. conclusion peacemaking in nigeria remains a critical issue, and there is a need for more effective and sustainable approaches to conflict resolution. the involvement of local communities and non-state actors, including young people, is essential for the success of peacemaking efforts in nigeria. the study has contributed to the existing literature on peace-building and conflict management, particularly in the context of nigeria. it highlighted the need to involve young people in peace-building efforts as well as how to promote their participation. the study findings is relevant to policymakers, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders involved in peace-building and conflict management in nigeria. in general, the roles of youth in peacebuilding and conflict management are diverse and dynamic, and depend on various factors such as the context, the nature of the conflict, and the resources available. however, by engaging in these activities, youth can contribute significantly to building sustainable peace in south east nigeria. recommendations after considering several literatures and analysing the contents, the following suggestions are made by the paper: 1. government and non-governmental organizations should prioritize youth inclusion in peace building and conflict management initiatives by providing resources and support to empower youth leaders and community-based organizations. 2. efforts should be made to promote dialogue among different ethnic and religious groups in south-east nigeria. such dialogue can help to build trust, reduce misunderstandings, and promote peaceful coexistence. 3. education and economic opportunities are critical factors in reducing poverty, which is often a root cause of conflict. therefore, efforts should be made to increase access to education and economic opportunities for young people in south-east nigeria. 4. conflict resolution mechanisms, such as mediation and negotiation, should be strengthened and made more accessible to youth in south-east nigeria. this can help to prevent conflicts from escalating and reduce the impact of existing conflicts. lawal re-examining peacemaking and conflict management... 225 youth should be involved in decision-making processes at all levels of government and civil society. this can help to ensure that their voices are heard and their perspectives are considered in policies that affect them. references adedeji, a. (2018). youth and governance in africa: challenges and prospects. in m. o. olaniyan & o. s. olaniyan (eds.), the palgrave handbook of african youth and youth studies (pp. 315-336). palgrave macmillan. agbiboa, d. e. (2015). youth and peacebuilding: theoretical explorations. in handbook on peacebuilding (pp. 283-297). routledge. ahamefule, u. (2013). how to attain peace and security in nigeria. retrieved march 19, 2023, from . akpan, u. g. (2018). youth empowerment and peace building in nigeria. global journal of human-social science: a arts & humanities psychology, 18(1), 28-37. bajaj, m., & de souza, r. (2018). critical perspectives on youth and peacebuilding. in handbook of critical youth studies (pp. 497-513). routledge. barnes, c., & dovey, j. (2018). the role of youth in peacebuilding. the aspen institute. bar-tal, d. (2013). intractable conflicts: socio-psychological foundations and dynamics. cambridge university press. bercovitch, j., & jackson, r. (2009). conflict resolution in the twenty-first century: principles, methods, and approaches. university of michigan press. bergenwall, a. l., & nilsson, m. (2020). stuck in structural injustice: a study on marginalisation and mobilisation in southern nigeria. the journal of development studies, 56(2), 301-316. boutros-ghali, b. (1992). an agenda for peace: preventive diplomacy, peacemaking, and peace-keeping. report of the secretary-general pursuant to the statement adopted by the summit meeting of the security council on january 31, 1992. united nations. brinkmann, c. (2006). steps for peace working manual for peace building and conflict management. kabul: german development service (deutscher entwicklungsdienst, ded) coleman, p. t., & ferguson, r. f. (2015). the five percent: finding solutions to seemingly impossible conflicts. publicaffairs. deutsch, m. (2017). the resolution of conflict: constructive and destructive processes. routledge. doyle, m. w. & sambanis, n. (1999). building peace: challenges and strategies after the c i v i l w a r . r e t r i e v e d , f r o m ezeibe, c. c., & umezinwa, v. n. (2020). youth and counter-extremism in nigeria: insights from social media. journal of youth studies, 23(6), 1-16. http://www.africanspotlight.com https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/role-youth-peacebuilding/ http://www.chs.ubc.ca/srilanka/pdfs/building%20peacechallenges%20and%2 0strategies.pdf m a r c h 2 4 , 2 0 2 3 226 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june http://www.africanspotlight.com https://www.aspeninstitute.org/blog-posts/role-youth-peacebuilding/ http://www.chs.ubc.ca/srilanka/pdfs/building%20peacechallenges%20and%20strategies.pdf galtung, j. (1996). peace by peaceful means: peace and conflict, development and civilization. sage publications. galtung, j., & richmond, o. p. (2020). the art of peace research. routledge. gurr, t. r., & cole, j. w. (2019). understanding conflict and conflict analysis. routledge. haslam, s. a. (2001). psychology in organizations: the social identity approach. sage. hunte, c. e., & lashley, m. (2020). youth involvement in peacebuilding: a critical analysis of the extant literature. journal of peace education, 17(4), 383-401. ibeanu, o. (2006). conceptualising peace, in best, s. g. (ed.) introduction to peace and conflict studies in west africa. ibadan: spectrum books limited. ibeanu, o., & otutu, o. (2020). conflict in nigeria: causes and types. in encyclopaedia of the un sustainable development goals (pp. 1-12). springer. ibekwe, o. c. (2020). the historical roots of conflicts in nigeria: implications for sustainable peace and development. journal of peace, conflict and military studies, 1(1), 1-16. kriesberg, l. (2020). conflict transformation and peacebuilding: moving from violence to sustainable peace. routledge. lederach, j. p. (1997). building peace: sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. us institute of peace press. lederach, j. p. (2015). the moral imagination: the art and soul of building peace. oxford university press. licklider, r. (2020). peacemaking. in oxford research encyclopedia of politics. oxford university press. moore, c. w. (2014). the mediation process: practical strategies for resolving conflict. john wiley & sons. moussaoui, l., & adwan, m. a. (2017). youth and peacebuilding in conflict zones: an exploration of the role of youth in promoting and hindering peace. international journal of adolescence and youth, 22(3), 349-361. obi, c. (2012). nigerian youths and the search for peace: towards a new approach. policy brief no. 01/2012. united nations development programme. oduwole, a. a., & abiodun, b. j. (2019). exploring the role of youth in peacebuilding in nigeria. journal of education and practice, 10(6), 35-40. okolie, v. u. (2018). conflict and conflict resolution in nigeria: implications for sustainable development. journal of conflict and security law, 23(3), 467-485. okorie, n. n., & chukwuocha, c. u. (2021). youth, peacebuilding and conflict transformation in nigeria: examining the nexus. african journal of conflict resolution, 21(1), 28-52. onuoha, f. c. (2020). leadership, politics and national development in nigeria: implications for sustainable democratic growth. journal of the social sciences, 2(2), 1-16. onyekwelu, u. u., onyekwelu, o. m., & chukwuocha, c. u. (2019). youth and lawal re-examining peacemaking and conflict management... 227 peacebuilding in nigeria: a study of igbo youths in ebonyi state. journal of youth studies, 22(3), 361-374. paris, r., & sisk, t. d. (2009). the dilemmas of state-building: confronting the contradictions of post-war peace operations. routledge. pettigrew, t. f., & tropp, l. r. (2006). a meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. journal of personality and social psychology, 90(5), 751–783. population reference bureau. (2021). nigeria: population, facts & figures. retrieved from rahim, m. a. (2017). managing conflict in organizations. routledge. ramsbotham, o., woodhouse, t., & miall, h. (2016). contemporary conflict resolution: the prevention, management and transformation of deadly conflicts. polity press. svensson, i., & wallensteen, p. (2020). peacemaking. in oxford research encyclopaedia of international studies. oxford university press. tajfel, h., & turner, j. c. (1979). an integrative theory of intergroup conflict. the social psychology of intergroup relations, 33-47. tajfel, h., & turner, j. c. (1986). the social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. in s. worchel & w. g. austin (eds.), psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 7-24). chicago: nelson-hall. umejesi, i. (2019). peacemaking in nigeria: towards effective conflict resolution mechanisms. journal of peace, security & development, 2(2), 61-77. un. (2015). the role of youth in promoting peace and countering violent extremism. retrieved from undp. (2016). youth and violent extremism on social media: mapping the research. united nations development programme. united nations. (2015). the role of youth in peacebuilding: challenges and opportunities. united nations interagency working group on youth and peacebuilding. uzoechi, u. c., & nwankwo, i. j. (2020). youth empowerment and peacebuilding in nigeria: the role of non-governmental organizations. journal of research on women and gender, 11(1), 52-63. wall, b. (2019). the art of peacemaking: building trust and tackling conflict through creative diplomacy. routledge. wall, j. a., & callister, r. r. (2017). conflict and its resolution in the changing world of work. routledge. wilmot, w. w., & hocker, j. l. (2018). interpersonal conflict. mcgraw-hill education. wo r l d b a n k . ( 2 0 1 8 ) . t h e r o l e o f yo u t h i n p e a c e b u i l d i n g . https://www.prb.org/country/nigeria/ https://www.un.org/youthenvoy/2015/09/the-role-of-youth-inpromoting-peace-and-countering-violent-extremism/ https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/fragilityconflictviolence/brief/youth-andpeacebuilding march 20, 2023 march 22, 2023 228 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june https://www.prb.org/country/nigeria/ https://www.un.org/youthenvoy/2015/09/the-role-of-youth-in-promoting-peace-and-countering-violent-extremism/ https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/fragilityconflictviolence/brief/youth-and-peacebuilding 1 covid-19 experience in nigerian family settings: implications for researchers and family counsellors. rev. kenny udumka, cssp, ncc, lpc pagosa springs, colorado, united states of america. abstract it has become very important to clarify the pandemic era following different waves of covid 19 in different places. this is also important because the pandemic does not seem to be over yet. therefore, this paper focuses on the experiences of the pandemic in nigerian family settings and how such experiences have implications for researchers and family counsellors. to briefly understand how the pandemic has been experienced with associated levels of stress in the family system demands a deep appreciation of how different individual members of families expressed their beliefs concerningcovid-19, which reflected in their compliance or noncompliance to covid-19restrictions in their families. in this case, the general system theory could become an important lens for researchers and family counsellors who may wish to understand how the beliefs of some individual family members and their willingness to comply or not to comply with restrictions could become sources of increased levels of stress in the entire family system. introduction to understand the impact of the pandemic on the nigerian family structure, it will be important to make a brief remark on the meaning of family in context. there is every need to make a shift from the traditional understanding of family as a system of relationships among people who share blood ties to current conceptualizations. in this regard, whall (1996) defined the family as a self-defined group of two or more individuals who are, or are not, bound by blood ties or law, but function in a way that makes them feel they represent a family. this definition implies a very reflective consideration of various constellations of families (årestedt, persson & benzein, 2014) which usually generates a unique system of relationships especially in a place like nigeria where family settings could be categorized as families with one mother, multiple mothers, and the extended family. according to priest(2021), the understanding of family as a system of relationships was derived from the general system theory (bertalanffy, 1969). the general systems theory (bertalanffy, 1969) uncovers the principles behind the combination of interacting units which are known as sub-systems and their relationships to generate a new and unique system. in the light of family system theory, which is a derivative of the general system theory, the family in this context represents this new and unique system of relationships. therefore, a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of the family is not complete without the appreciation of how the individual units or individuals that make up the family influence the nature and experiences of the family during and after the covid-19 pandemic. the immediate effect of the covid-19on the family system are grouped into two aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 2 in this paper which include the different beliefs about the nature of the pandemic, and the effect of covid-19 on the family structure and its implications for researchers and family counsellors. different beliefs about the covid-19 in the family before any discussions on how different beliefs about the pandemic may differ among members of different families, a brief understanding of what family structure in nigeria may look like is important. because nigeria is poly-cultural in nature, family structures or systems may be dependent on the different cultures exhibited. for instance, in the igbo family structure, we have to take into consideration three kinds of family settings: family with one mother which consists of father, one mother, children, dependents, and relatives; family with multiple mothers common in polygamous families, with father, two or more mothers, children, dependents and relatives; and the extended family setting in which father, mother or mothers, children, in-laws, from both sides, friends, and other relatives all live together as one household (obindigbo, 2015). in the extended family settings, senior male figures and relatives are usually called uncles while females are called aunties. in the context of the pandemic, a major point of interest is how certain families could be made up of some people who believe and those who would not believe in the reality of the pandemic. in this case, it would be difficult for the family as a unique system of individuals to either apply social distancing to the fullest or exclude and ostracize those who refused to observe social distancing from the family. so, living in a family with some people who did not believe in the seriousness and reality of the pandemic was a source of stress that posed great danger to family members who believed in the reality of the pandemic and to the entire family as a system. therefore, this situation and associated increase in family stress has implications for both researchers and family counsellors. lack of belief in the seriousness of the pandemic has been attributed to different conspiracy theories and individual desires to differ from what other people believe. these beliefs in different conspiracy theories put both the individual and family at risk. evidences suggest that belief in conspiracy theories undermines engagement in pro-health behaviours and support for public health policies (earnshaw, 2020).some people believed that it was part of a government plan to use covid19 to transmit bioweapons into people as vaccines. while some thought it was coming from 5g cell towers (allyn, 2020), others thought it was part of the plans of some pharmaceutical companies to make profit through the spread of covid19. some people also believed that the virus is not worse than the usual strain of flu people take shots for during flu seasons. those who did not know anybody who had contacted the virus or died from it claimed it never existed for them. according to muller (2020), some researchers have linked belief in conspiracy theories to the need for uniqueness. in other words, people want to feel powerful and special as though they are in possession of important information that other udumka covid-19 experience in nigeria family … 3 people do not have. some of these conspirators and those who believed them are part of family systems where there were family members who took the situation very seriously and were willing to comply with government restrictions as well as those who either refused to believe or wished to appear different. in this case, the hesitations of certain family members to believe in the reality of the virus and their corresponding nonchalant attitudes towards the restrictions put in place to curb the rate of infections had the capacity to increase the experiences of stress in the entire family system. the stressors may vary from family to family. they include fear of infection and fear of coming into contact with objects or surfaces contaminated with the corona virus; fear of socio-economic impacts of the pandemic; fear of foreigners in case they are infected; pandemic-related compulsive checking and reassurance-seeking; pandemic-related traumatic stress symptoms. researchers have implicated these stressors as the origin of a severe form of a syndrome called the covid stress disorder, which is regarded as a pandemic-related adjustment disorder (taylor, 2021). managing the pandemic in family settings the spread of covid-19had nothing to do with believing or not believing in the reality of the pandemic. experiences have shown that some people who did not believe that it was real believed when they were hit by the pandemic. to reduce the rate of infections, social distancing was introduced, especially with people who were not members of the families. the idea of seeing people live in families as members of a safer social circle did not exclude the possibility that one or some members of the family may not have believed in the existence of covid-19 as a serious pandemic. to deal with this, some countries like the united state of america recognized the need to protect senior citizens in the nursing homes from their loved ones with physical contact restrictions. therefore, in as much as it is difficult for regular families where people lived together to control the in-and-out of individual members of their families, it seemed difficult for people living in such families to completely avoid being in contact with those infected with the virus. this is becausecovid-19 has a pervasive effect on families and the individuals that make up the families (lebow, 2020). this situation put families in danger of being victims of the disbelief of those who did not believe in the reality of covid-19and related consequences since social distancing was only easier among people who did not have to live in families together or where every family member shared the same belief. lack of belief in the reality of the pandemic by some members of families, increased anxiety among those who believed in the reality of covid-19. beyond the refusal to accept this reality in a family setting by some family members, there are other emerging realities that were not thought of among scholars, psychologists, and behavioural health experts as serious and possible triggers of stress in the family system with the experience of lockdown. other family aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 4 variables such as changes in income, lack of places to eat, for those who dislike cooking, were sources of stress in family settings. another emerging reality is the effect of an increased time together. it is possible that increased time together in the family had its positive effects like increased satisfaction in husband-wife, father-child, mother-child, and sibling-sibling relationships. it is also possible that some families experienced decrease in satisfaction in these relationship patterns as a result of increased time and inability to escape “family jail”. the consequences of these negative influences which demand more insights from researchers, pose new challenges for family counsellors, not only in raising questions on the influence of increased time together on the rate of family conflicts, divorce, intimate partner violence, and family violence increase (lebow, 2020), but also on best counselling approaches in a covid-19or post covid-19contextual family counselling. therefore, the anxiety from covid-19experiences in families, lead to increased levels of stress in the entire family system. all the different forms of stress engendered by the pandemic consequently and no doubt elevate the prevalence of individual anxiety and psychopathology (mcfarlane, 2016). talking of psychopathology here, one may not be interested in descriptive psychopathology which tries to offer the precise categorization and definition of the experiences of the family members, but in the explanatory psychopathology which attempts to explain symptoms of distorted mental and behavioural health of people living in families as a result of the pandemic based on the family system theory as a theoretical model (oyebode, 2018) which is a derivative of the general system theory (bertalanffy, 1969). implications for researchers and family counsellors irrespective of the positive or negative effects of the pandemic on the family system, the general experience has raised the consciousness level of individual family members, psychologists, social workers and family counsellors directly or indirectly on the reality of the family as a system. the general system theory (bertalanffy, 1969) on which the family system theory is basedprovides practical and scholarly explanations of how subsystems irrespective of the particular nature of their composition act together to form a new system that is different from the system. researchers and family counsellors can use this theoretical model to understand how a more focused attention and increased awareness on the family as a system can offer a better and easier understanding of the contributions of each member of the family towards a unique family structure that becomes different in function and character from individual family members. therefore, looking at the characteristics of a family in context as a product of the characteristics of individual members of the family in nigeria offers researchers and family counsellors the opportunity to appreciate the need for increased attention on different kinds of stress triggered by the pandemic among the individual family members which shapes the nature of the family. for the family udumka covid-19 experience in nigeria family … 5 counsellors, this knowledge will enhance the understanding of the need to individualize the family stress since what the family suffers is an accumulation of different stress coping strategies that are either positive or negative among the family members. so, dealing with the effects of the covid-19on the family in counseling sessions starts with the effects of covid-19on individual members of the family. this suggests an adoption of the general system theory framework. to adopt the lens of the general system theory as a framework, the researcher or the family counselor in nigeria must be contextual in bracketing prior preconceptions, for instance, those based on the views of the greek philosopher aristotle that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. there must be a conscious separation of the meaning of the “whole” and the “individual” as in mathematical and some psychological constructs. this is because in mathematics, the whole is equal to the sum of all the parts, while in gestalt psychology the whole is different from the parts of the whole. this view used among gestalt psychologists to explain the relationship among things perceived in the perception system could make people think that it shares the same view with the general system theory where the whole system is also perceived as different from the individual parts. to differentiate the two views in contexts and application while focusing on the effect of the pandemic on families, the meaning of the “whole is different from individual parts” in gestalt theory means that one cannot understand the parts of something to understand the whole. but in a different manner, the application of general system theory enables an understanding of the whole family system from the understanding of the individual parts represented by the individual experiences of the family members. therefore, after bracketing preconceptions based on aristotle and gestalt psychologists, researchers can conveniently use the principles of the general system theory to understand how individual stress and pathologies increased family dysfunctions that contextually redefined families with the advent of covid-19. this has great implications for researchers, especially family counsellors who should start with individual counselling first in a family counselling protocol. conclusion. until now, reactions to the pandemic have been conceptualized as what mostly concerned individuals without much known focus on how it could reshape the function of the family as a unique system. this paper has therefore, attempted a brief explanation of how nigerian family systems may differ based on culture. the paper also explained briefly how covid-19 experiences in nigerian family settings based on different beliefs about the pandemic may have affected compliance to covid-19restrictions.for an understanding of the impact of individual beliefs, and acceptance of different conspiracy theories and their effects on the stress levels of families in nigeria during the pandemic, this paper encourages researchers and counsellors to adopt the lens of the general system theory to see how the stress of individual family members lead to stressed families. references aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 6 allyn b. researchers: nearly half of accounts tweeting about corona virus are likely bots. available at https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/05/20/859814085/researchers-nearly-half-of-accountstweeting-about-coronavirus-are-likely-bots. accessed july 27, 2021. årestedt, l., persson, c., &benzein, e. (2014). living as a family in the midst of chronic illness. scandinavian journal of caring sciences, 28(1), 29-37. bertalanffy, l. v. (1969). general systems theory: foundations, development, applications. george braziller. earnshaw, v. a., eaton, l. a., kalichman, s. c., brousseau, n. m., hill, e. c., & fox, a. b. (2020). covid-19 conspiracy beliefs, health behaviors, and policy support. translational behavioral medicine, 10(4), 850-856. lebow, jay l. “covid-19, families, and family therapy: shining light into the darkness.” family process vol. 59,3 (2020): 825-831. doi:10.1111/famp.12590 mcfarlane, w. r. (2016). family interventions for schizophrenia and the psychoses: a review. family process, 55(3), 460-482. muller r. covid-19 brings a pandemic of conspiracy theories. available at https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/talking-about-trauma/202004/covid19-brings-pandemic-conspiracy-theories. accessed july 27, 2021. obindigbo (2015). understanding the igbo family life and structure. http://obindigbo.com.ng/2015/11/understanding-igbo-family-life-and-structure/ . accessed july 27, 2021. oyebode, f. (2018). sims' symptoms in the mind: textbook of descriptive psychopathology e-book. elsevier health sciences. priest, j. b. (2021). the science of family systems theory: translating theory and evidence-based practice into the therapy room. routledge. taylor, s. (2021). covid stress syndrome: clinical and nosological considerations. current psychiatry reports, 23(4), 1-7. whallal(1986). the family as the unit of care in nursing: a historical review. public health nursing, (3), 240– 9. https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/05/20/859814085/researchers-nearly-half-of-accounts-tweeting-about-coronavirus-are-likely-bots https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/05/20/859814085/researchers-nearly-half-of-accounts-tweeting-about-coronavirus-are-likely-bots https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/05/20/859814085/researchers-nearly-half-of-accounts-tweeting-about-coronavirus-are-likely-bots https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/talking-about-trauma/202004/covid-19-brings-pandemic-conspiracy-theories https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/talking-about-trauma/202004/covid-19-brings-pandemic-conspiracy-theories http://obindigbo.com.ng/2015/11/understanding-igbo-family-life-and-structure/ a thomistic interpretation of religious education for national unity victoria openifoluwa akoleowo abstract this paper contends that theological education promotes national unity when it recognizes the need to construct a notion of ‗the common good‘ as the basis of national unity. it examines the human person as a rational, relational, and religious being whose rationality provides a common denominator with other rational beings of different persuasions. it also examines the notion of the common good as one associated with higher purposes and a virtuous life, which can only be realized in an ideal political community. utilizing the analytic and synthetic methods, it draws from thomas aquinas‘ natural law tradition to present a compatibilist notion of faith and reason as necessary tools for the identification of the common good, which ultimately leads to due order in society. due order is maintained in a multireligious entity where members of each religion are equipped with the philosophical tool of rationality which encourages inter-faith dialogues, thus leading to an effective management of tensions and conflicts and an enthronement of peaceful coexistence. keywords: common good, national unity, rationality, theological education 1. introduction this paper argues that theological education as distinct from theological indoctrination fosters national unity when it espouses the notion of a common good desired by all rational beings. it asserts that indoctrination is a deliberate attempt to set up a religion as the only valid religion, discouraging other alternative religions and encouraging the suppression of all other possible understanding and criticisms of the beliefs taught in the ‗valid‘ religion. indoctrination neglects the fact of pluralism, which is a demanding factor of the twenty-first century state, and in the face of which, the call for unity becomes an urgent and pertinent task. this paper therefore provides a theoretical background for a theological education which would foster national unity, with particular emphasis on the common ground shared by all rational beings. however, to proffer such a theoretical background imposes an initial intellectual obligation to clarify what is meant by theological education, national unity, common good and how theological education, through the recognition of the common good, can foster national unity. this paper is therefore divided into three sections. section one attempts a definition of what theological education is; section two provides an analysis of the concept of national unity, with particular emphasis on its role in multicultural societies; and the third section examines the notion of common good, its relationship to national unity, and concludes with how theological education can be instrumental in achieving national unity, and ultimately, a peaceful and well-ordered society. 2. what is theological education? as the name implies, theological education is education about theology. education itself is the process of acquiring the art of utilization of knowledge (whitehead, 1932). derived etymologically from the 16th century latin word educare, meaning to bring up, train or rear, it is akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … also defined as ―the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university‖ (dictionary, 2018). in pre-colonial africa, character formation and skill acquisition were inseparably linked. pre-colonial education was geared towards the need for sharing and transmitting cultural, religious and moral values; and the impact of these values on the work ethics of society (mosweunyane, 2013). education in pre-colonial africa was thus, value-laden and participatory. its value-laden and participatory features were truncated by the colonial adoption of john dewey‘s theory of education which proposed a scientific and humanistic approach to education, to the detriment of the hitherto value-laden approach. dewey‘s theory of education rested on the fundamental assumption of the human person as one who is naturally good and thus, does not need a divine being to make him/her good. to explain the presence of evil in the world, dewey simply asserted that the evils in society arise out of the evolutionary adjustment process, and such evils can be addressed by humans without recourse to any divine being. how? through the utilization of the human intelligence. the scientific method of research is human intelligence in praxis, and is best suited for resolving all social ills (dewey, 1998). dewey defined education itself as an accumulation of experiences that stimulate both growth and the capacity for further growth (dewey, 1998). in an attempt to restore african education from a system which had robbed the african child of innovativeness, originality and creativity (fasokun, 1999), aliu babatunde fafunwa defined education as the aggregate of all the processes by which a child or young adult develops the abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour which are of positive value to the society in which he lives, with primary emphasis on learning through the use of the mother-tongue rather than colonial languages (fafunwa, 1974). this presents a picture of education as a process through which a person learns the necessary tools for adding value to his/her society. such tools are typically embedded in the social and cultural practices of a people; thus, education is a process of transmitting the culture of a people to the young members of society in a manner that ensures continuity and growth, and also ensures social control and rational direction of society. having defined what education is, it is also pertinent to know what theology is. from its etymological roots theo and logos, theology is literarily translated as the science concerning god (vos, 1975), or the study of god. it is also defined as ―a process of bringing to speech who i am as a person of faith and as a product of my historical, geographical, social and cultural environment‖ (trokan, 2013, p. 146); and as an intellectual quest aimed at attaining the highest possible degree of intelligibility, charity and consistency in its attempt to investigate, explain and systematize the understanding of the religion of a people (nmah, 2013); among other definitions. it is distinct from religion, in that while religion is the belief in, and worship of a superhuman deity, with a primary focus on morality and god, theology is ―an investigation of the nature of deity, deities, and divinity; an intellectual framework for religious belief and practice; (and) an organized expression of the meaning of numinous or sacred experiences‖ (kraemer, 2013). worthy of note here is the fact that theology, which is mostly practiced by roman catholic and protestant scholars is viewed as a faith-imbued intellectual activity with the aim of providing justifications for the beliefs held by the theologian whose foundational stance is a belief in what s/he is studying (louth & thielicke, 2020). religious studies on the other hand is often regarded aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 as a more comparative, systematic and scientific study of the different religious beliefs, institutions and cultures of the world due to its presentation of texts and findings in a manner that precludes religious scholars‘ necessary acceptance/adoption of the beliefs they study. anthony akinwale explains this distinction this way whereas the study of religion in most nigerian universities combines the phenomenological and comparative approaches, theology, while not ignoring the phenomenological and comparative approaches, sees religion as more than a mere phenomenon. whereas other approaches see religion as a mere phenomenon explicable by unaided human intellect, theology sees religion as a revealed phenomenon…theology is the approach of a scholar whose starting point is adherence to the doctrines and beliefs of the religion, and whose intent is to demonstrate the conceptual possibility and intellectual honesty in adhering to such doctrines and beliefs. (2007, p 141). from the above definitions, theological education can be defined simply as the preparation of church leaders for the current and coming generations. a more formal definition is that of diememenoelliste, who defines it as the formation of the ―people of god in the truth and wisdom of god for the purpose of personal renewal and meaningful participation in the fulfillment of the purpose of god in the church and in the world‖ (noelliste, 1995, p. 299). it is a study geared towards priestly formation, christian vocation and is typically structured such that the student achieves a balance between spiritual formation, academic excellence and personal development. it is also a study that is deemed vital for the transmission of christian tradition to future generations; necessary for the renewal and continuity of church leadership; essential for authentic and contextual mission of the church in contemporary times; and necessary for the interaction between church and society (conway, 2010). theological education has undergone considerable change over the years, but from the christian perspective it has focused predominantly upon imparting knowledge of the bible in the western model, with the beginnings of an effort been made now to discern god‘s ways in the present world. prior to this effort, theology was taught using what is referred to as the banking method (trokan, 2013). this method is typically assumed as the proper method of transmitting knowledge; the teacher is the repository of knowledge which s/he transfers to the student(s) in a ‗deposit‘ like process. this process excludes the possibility of students reflecting on the deposited knowledge to arrive at new knowledge, as aptly captured in the humean and kantian theories of knowledge. in david hume and immanuel kant‘s theories of knowledge, knowledge is acquired through perception from the external world and such acquired knowledge is reflected upon to arrive at new knowledge. a closer analysis of noelliste‘s definition of theological education highlights the fact that theological education is education which is geared towards a particular purpose, which is the transformation of individuals. these individuals are transformed in their nature as social beings, to actualize a mission – the fulfillment of god‘s purpose on earth. this implies that theological akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … education should produce people who have been transformed from what they were, to become persons who in turn transform and influence their social spheres of influence. this in turn implies that rather than have a theological education structured as a continuous process of theoretical knowledge acquisition, the curriculum for theological education should be structured to create a proper ethos that integrates theory with practice. this becomes necessary in view of the fact of an increasingly connected world abounding with pluralism of cultures, religions, doctrines and beliefs. using a pluralistic world as a backdrop, and bearing in mind that the final product of theological education should be individuals with the ability to affect their world, theological education needs to encourage critical reflection in order for proper and informed relations to contemporary issues facing the local and wider church settings. collaboration among seminaries and theological schools is a feature of the world we live in now, but while collaboration among people of the same faith is premised on the similarities between beliefs and doctrines, interreligious dialogue suffers from a lack of common ground in the sense of similarity of faiths/beliefs. 3. national unity national unity is defined in various ways, and the first definition typically proffered in conversational situations presents national unity as a form of government composed by a coalition of political parties. while this definition follows the line of argument made in this work on the notion of peaceful co-existence, it does not explicate the concept of national unity itself. as a political/philosophical concept, nation unity has numerous definitions. an acceptable definition is that it is a situation where members/citizens of a country possess a mutual understanding of what makes them one country, and act in ways that encourage, prolong and sustain such ‗oneness‘. this does not in any way imply that such citizens act in uniformity or homogeneity; rather, it advocates that multicultural societies can achieve peaceful co-existence where each nationality recognizes diversity, and acts to minimize sectional practices which are disruptive to such co-existence (etzioni, 2002). it must be noted that the concept of national unity is often denounced in its conceptualization as a utopian ideal. in this sense it is romanticized as the sole determinant of peaceful co-existence in multicultural societies. while this view can be acknowledged as one that places too much emphasis on the importance of national unity, it must be noted that national unity is indeed an important and necessary condition for societal peace where national unity is underpinned by racial and religious tolerance (etzioni, 2002). unity makes it possible for the citizens of a nation to act as a cohesive whole, mostly through their representatives, allowing them to achieve set goals as a nation, rather than as component individuals. however, national unity is possible only where there is an underpinning feature of a common identity shared by all citizens of a nation, and can only be fostered by having a common goal. an example of a multicultural country which rose from ‗humble beginnings‘ to an enviable success story through its citizenry‘s pursuit of a common goal is singapore. singapore rose from a third world status to an enviable position in the committee of nations, an achievement which has been credited majorly to the unity of its citizens. some fifty years ago, singapore had no natural aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 resources and was tagged one of the developing nations of the world. now, it is touted as a fully developed nation, with a high standard of living; an achievement credited to the unified pursuit of a better life by its diverse citizenry (keong, 2013). nigeria is also an example of a multicultural country. however, nigerians have not been able to articulate a common good to which all nigerians aspire towards, and this has resulted into a high level of intolerance towards members of other nationalities, ideologies, religions, beliefs and doctrines. of particular importance to this work is the plurality of religions in the country. comprised of citizens belonging to three main religions, namely christianity, islam, and traditional african religions, nigeria has been particularly bedeviled by religious intolerance, and although it is often referred to as a secular state, it is more accurate to describe the country as a multi-religious society, judging by the overarching influence of religion in all aspects of our national life. in nigeria, devotion to the teachings of islam and christianity on the part of their respective adherents without a requisite acknowledgement of the inherent humanity of the ‗other‘ has resulted into an unprecedented level of religious intolerance. religious intolerance or fanaticism is the inability of an adherent of a particular religion to acknowledge, accommodate and accept the right of others to live by another faith different from his own. invariably, such an attitude is connected to the conviction that one‘s religion is the only divinely ordained path to spiritual enlightenment and immortality in heaven. consequently, a religious fanatic believes strongly that his religion is unquestionably superior to other religions, and those who belong to other faiths must be converted. an extreme form of this belief is practiced by some islamic sects who believe that in the absence of the possibility of conversion, non-adherents must be killed. 3.1. theological education for national unity in the nigerian context, the theologian is faced with problems stemming from cultural, religious and ethnic differences. the contemporary nigerian nation pays lip service to the idea of a ‗nigerian essence‘, and identification is done on the basis of ethnic and religious affiliations. this has resulted into a divided society, one where each religion or ethnic group views itself as primary over others, and searches for ways/ methods of asserting primacy over others. this does not paint the picture of a society of people living in peace and harmony, and the terrorist attacks by boko haram insurgents can be seen as a result of having the mind-set that one‘s religion is the ‗one‘. it has therefore become imperative to restructure theological education in order to address the concerns of national unity. this restructuring must be one where the final products of a theological education operate on the foundation of the facts that 1. all humans possess dignity, and 2. the continuous existence of a collective of people is inherently dependent on their mutual recognition and pursuit of (a) common good(s). 4. the common good as a socio-political concept, the common good is best defined as what is in the public interest. it denotes those goods/activities that serve all members of a given community and its institutions, and, as such, includes both goods that serve no identifiable particular group, as well as those that akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … serve members of generations not yet born (etzioni, 2015). as a normative concept with a long and contested history, there is no universal agreement on what it entails, how it should be balanced against individual goods, and if and by whom it should be enforced. having deep religious and political roots, it is a concept which rarely receives adequate attention in contemporary socio political discuss. this paper therefore attempts to highlight the principal lines of thomas aquinas‘ thought on the nature and constitution of the common good, with particular emphasis on why this concept is a necessary foundational concept for teachers and students of theological education, with the ultimate aim of revitalizing interest in this concept. 4.1 thomas aquinas and the common good thomas aquinas relied heavily on aristotle for his notion of common good. in the nichomachean ethics, aristotle defines the good as that which all things desire. everything has a nature, which is a form to which it must conform. everything also has an end, and the end of a thing lies in the fulfillment of its nature (aristotle, 1941). for plants and inanimate objects, the inclination to achieve perfection is motivated by internal principles/features/properties which lead them from one state of existence to another in a predictable manner. in humans and other animals, the inclination towards perfection is motivated by knowledge and love. knowledge is derived from experiencing the world, and such knowledge consists of the determination of things that are beneficial or harmful to them. once acquired, knowledge enables animals to discover their position/niche in the world, and operate within this position/niche as an established being. if the good is that which all desire, happiness is that which is sought by all. everything is done to achieve happiness, and for humans, happiness is the final end. this is where aquinas builds up aristotle‘s position to arrive at the fact of the common good. for aquinas, social groups are ordered by law. while laws might be coercive, they are primarily accessed through reason which dictates that humans share a common goal – human flourishing. using this as a fulcrum, aquinas identifies three (3) inclinations that are possessed by human namely: an inclination towards existence in a manner suitable to his/her nature (which is shared by all other things); an inclination to live as members of the animal kingdom which encompasses identification of one‘s position/niche, fulfillment of natural biological ‗obligations‘ including propagation of the species (which is shared by other animals); and lastly, an inclination to live in society (which is the human beings‘ natural habitat, as rational and political animals, and within which humans can attain well being) and a desire to attain perfection (aquinas, 1947). this final inclination is peculiar to humans because of the social aspect of their nature which dictates society as humans‘ natural habitat. this implies that humans cannot exist outside society. this position is justified by the fact that it is impossible to conceive of a human baby surviving and growing up outside of a community of people to take care of its needs. if humans cannot exist outside of society, it then becomes necessary that society itself must be one that is conducive enough for humans to achieve their ends. society is intrinsically necessary to man, and following from aquinas‘ position that all things are ordered towards their ends, it follows that society also has its own end to which it is ordered. this end, for society, is the ‗common good‘. in the sense that society is ordered towards a particular end, and humans cannot live outside of society, the common good becomes the supreme human good, differing qualitatively from the particular goods aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 of individual members of the society, although directed toward the same end: attaining the knowledge of god through virtuous living. according to aristotle, the common good consists of actions performed for the mutual advantage of all citizens of any particular society. the sole purpose of humans living in society is to ensure that they attain their ends. extrapolating from this, aquinas argues that the notion of the common good implies a mutually shared concept among members of society. while he asserts that this concept is found in the knowledge of god, this paper argues that it is also found in the notion of a peaceful and well-ordered society. 4.2 the common good as knowledge of god/ well-ordered society aquinas affirms that god loves all human beings, and that all human beings desire one thing – the knowledge of god. to know god is to love him, and thus, anyone who claims to love god must also love those god loves. this is further buttressed by the fact that a human being is a social being who should help others of his/her kind to achieve/attain their ends with the hope/belief that these others would reciprocate when s/he is also in need of help. consequently, humans ought to live in mutual love, which is often manifested where people help out strangers with no hope of reciprocity. thus, the pursuit of the knowledge of god requires participation in public life. since the human being‘s particular good is interwoven with society‘s common good, it follows that all actions which are inimical to attaining the knowledge of god are actions which are contrary to the common good, while actions which encourage the actualization of the common good are in the interest of all. public, peaceful participation in societal life encourages the actualization of the common good where such participation is done with due order and proportionality. 4.3 rationality and the common good the human being is a rational animal whose rationality enables him/her to participate in the eternal laws. this participation imbues in humans certain natural basic propositions, better known as natural laws. natural laws are known through the application of reason, but humans derive variations of laws from natural laws which are applied to existential issues of social life. however, given that all laws have their causes/source in the eternal laws created by god; it is not out of place to conclude that all laws are naturally directed towards achieving the common good. aquinas categorically asserts this conclusion by stating that the purpose of law is to promote the common good. since the natural law is nothing more than human participation in the eternal law, and reason is the principal tool of this participation, when a human being acts in accordance with reason, s/he acts in accordance with virtue. humans exist within the context of social structures. the social nature of humans is an integral dimension and society is germane to the achievement of human happiness, as such happiness can only be attained within the societal framework. thus, society, being the human‘s being‘s natural habitat, is the only habitat within which human being can find self-realization. in society, humans apply their rational and social aspects to achieve a domain necessary for human survival. this domain is regulated and preserved through transmission of experiences and discoveries over akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … ceding generations. this becomes the culture through which society is sustained, and in which moral norms are delineated to ensure preservation. the human person is characterized by rationality, relationality and religiousity(akinwale, 2017). rationality enables the human being to subordinate her/his appetitive and emotional aspects. this is necessary for the human being‘s attainment of both particular individual good and the common good. the hobbesian transition to civil society aptly showcases this ability to utilize rationality as a tool for the achievement of both individual and common goods. the hobbesian state of nature was populated by humans who exhibited egoistic tendencies in the pursuit of their personal goods. this egoistic pursuit was dictated by their emotions and appetites, and ultimately led to a state of anarchy, where each human rose up against the next human. eventually they came to the realization that if the prevailing chaotic state were to continue, it would not encourage human flourishing. recourse was then made to the rational aspect of the human nature which dictates that the continuous survival of the human race can only be achieved where there is peaceful co existence. prior to hobbes, aquinas‘ natural law theory argued that humans possess the capacity to know the right way to live in society. this knowledge is attained through the human rational nature. underpinning aquinas‘ theory is the notion of the ‗common good‘ which is shared by all humans by virtue of their rationality. rationality imbues one with an appreciation of the fact that being human accords one a certain level of dignity. this dignity is to be respected and protected in all measures. thus, implied in the notion of the common good is the recognition of the dignity of the human person, an inherent dignity that must be respected in the pursuit of person 4.4 theological education and the common good the nigerian nation is currently plagued by indices of underdevelopment, including poverty, institutional corruption, ignorance and differing shades of neo-colonialism. multi-cultural, multi ethnic and multi-religious contexts make it difficult for a wide acceptance of theories that aid development. the church has tried to contribute its own quota through theological educational as seen in the establishment of schools, institutes and centers for lay studies and seminaries. however, it must be noted that inter-religious dialogue is only possible through rationality and recognition of a mutual common good. as akinwale notes ―peoples of divergent religious and political affiliations can (only) enter into dialogue or a common ground located on the intellectual faculty that is our common possession‖ (akinwale, 2017, p. 133). theological education should place more emphasis on interfaith encounters which would result in mutual action towards the achievement of the common good. interfaith/interreligious dialogue however implies knowledge of other religious traditions, an example being the catholic theological tradition which teaches courses in islamic religious knowledge. we must also note that the basic fundamental to being a christian is the ‗mission‘ which theological education is meant to prepare for. theological education must thus prepare for mission praxis leading to an orientation towards the world to whom god has sent christians. all subjects should be studied not in abstract theory, but with full awareness of the practical implications of topics studied, particularly with regards to the mission of evangelizing. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 theological education itself is renewed by learning new ideas generated by missionary praxis in the world. the church is called to work in the world, and understanding the world demands that theological education be interdisciplinary in nature. this would ensure a working knowledge of the world in which the mission takes place. 5. conclusion while there is no formula for what it takes to train a successful and faithful minister of the church, it is possible for products of theological training to achieve a level of success as people of god. this would obtain where theological education has moved beyond intellectual theorizing to instilling in students a deeper personal ‗appropriation‘ of their faith. this would in turn result into a love for the truth, which the christian faith teaches is – ‗god is love‘, not only in abstract terms, but also in the demonstration of this truth. products of such training would be persons who recognize that members of other faiths living alongside deserve no less mutual awareness and respect as other christians. they would also know that all members of society, irrespective of their religious or ethnic affiliations are equally able to comprehend the necessity of working together to achieve a peaceful and well-ordered society. this, in essence, is the common good which this paper preaches. akeleowo a thomistic interpretation of religious … references akinwale, anthony. (2007). the place of theology in the university curriculum. in j. kenny, (ed.), the idea of an african university:nigerian philosophical studies, ii (141-160). the council for research in values and philosophy. akinwale, a. (2017). religion and politics in contemporary nigeria. african journal of politics and society, 2, 133-150. aquinas, t. (1947). summa theologiae. (f. o. province, trans.). new york: benziger brothers. aristotle. (1941). the basic works of aristotle. (r. mckeon, ed., & g. r. mure, trans.). new york: random house. conway, m. (2010). key issues for theological education in the 21st century. in d. werner, d. esterline, n. kang, & j. raja (eds.), handbook of theological education (pp. 23-29). oxford: regnum books international. dewey, j. (1998). the essential dewey. (l. a. hickman, & t. m. alexander, eds.) bloomington, indiana: indiana university press. etzioni, a. (2002). diversity within unity: a communitarian approach to immigration policy. migration world magazine, 30(1-2), 14-19. etzioni, a. (2015). common good. in m. t. gibbons, (ed.) the encyclopedia of political thought, first edition, 1-7. hoboken, nj: wiley blackwell publishing. fafunwa, a. b. (1974). history of education in nigeria. london: allen & unwin. fasokun, t. o. (1999). fafunwa, aliu babatunde (1923-). performance magazine. retrieved from https://www.performancemagazine.org/thinkers-on-education/fafunwa-aliu-babtunde 1923/ keong, c. s. (2013, march). multiculturalism in singapore the way to a harmonious society. singapore academy of law journal, 25(1), 84-109. kraemer, c. (2013, january 3). theology is not religious studies (blog post). retrieved from http://www.patheos.com/blogs/sermonsfromthemound/2013/01/theology-is-not-religious studies/?repeat=w3tc louth, a., & thielicke, h. (2020, september 13). theology. encyclopedia britannica. retrieved from htpps://www.britannica.com/topic/theology mosweunyane, d. (2013). the african educational evolution: from traditional training to formal education. higher educational studies, 3(4), 50-59. nmah, p. e. (2013). theological education and character formation in nigerian christianity: a reflection. african research review, 7(28), 34-46. noelliste, d. (1995). towards a theology of theological education. evangelical review of theology, 19(3), 299-307. oxford english dictionary, o. (2018, january 11). education. in oxford english dictionary. retrieved january 11, 2018, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/education trokan, j. (2013). models of theological reflection: theory and praxis. catholic education: a journal of inquiry, 1(1), 144-158. vos, g. (1975). biblical theology old and new testaments. london: banner of truth trust. whitehead, a. (1932). the aims of education. london: ernest benn. http://www.performancemagazine.org/thinkers-on-education/fafunwa-aliu-babtundehttp://www.patheos.com/blogs/sermonsfromthemound/2013/01/theology-is-not-religioushttp://www.britannica.com/topic/theology aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 abstract nigeria is classified neither as a developed economy nor an economy in transition but as a developing economy. this is a gratuitous classification. in real terms, nigeria is an underdeveloped country. in the 2022 ranking of countries in their performance vis-à-vis the 2030 sustainable development goals, nigeria ranks 139 out of 193 countries. it trails behind countries like ghana, gabon, togo, cameroon, burkina faso, etc. its unenviable status as the capital poverty of the world, which it acquired in 2018, was only surpassed in 2022 by india. in spite of this, nigeria's national bureau of statistics, in its 2022 report, says that 133 million nigerians are in poverty. this parlous state is being exacerbated by ethnicity and religious bigotry. to halt this downward trend and turn the page of political transformation, great thinkers have underlined good leadership as a relevant factor that can serve as a fillip to the realisation of this goal. good leadership is good. however, it is insufficient for this project. there are two other relevant factors besides good leadership. they are, namely, a good constitution and the rule of law. the hierarchical order of importance of these relevant factors is: 1. good constitution, 2. good leadership and 3. the rule of law. the three are both independent and interdependent at the same time. they are a trinity of factors. nigeria's political transformation depends on these factors' dynamism and functionality. the analogy of these factors with the trinitarian persons is the analytical tool in this paper. keywords: constitution. leadership, law, trinity, transformation introduction there are many and varied socio-political and moral problems besetting and buffeting nigeria and scuttling her efforts to realise her development goals. they are insecurity, corruption, illiteracy, injustice, ethnicity, religion, etc. this is a bizarre situation that has brought about reduced national income, scaring away foreign investors, reduced inflows, increased national debts, soaring inflation, weak currency and increased unemployment, etc. several factors are said to be responsible for this unpleasant and embarrassing situation. the factors often mentioned are the constitution, leadership and the rule of law. mr afe babalola, a well-known nigerian legal luminary, moors the problem of nigeria on the constitution. he calls for a new constitution for nigeria (olayinka, nzor and afolabi, 2022). some nigerians agree with him that the nigerian constitution is fundamentally flawed and defective. this is because they support the five amendments which have been st nd rdmade in the 1999 constitution. the 1 , 2 and 3 alterations in the 1999 constitution were th thmade in 2010, the 4 in 2017, and the 5 in 2023. besides these, there were national political reform conference under former president olusegun obasanjo in 2005 and the national constitutional conference under former goodluck jonathan in 2014. all these the political transformation of nigeria – relevant factors cletus umezinwa, ph.d bigard memorial seminary, enugu 96 were made to correct the 1999 constitution, which is believed to be defective. however, the two reports of the conferences were not signed into law. there are now calls for the merger of the reports of these two conferences. all these attempts are unimpeachable pieces of evidence to bolster the view of some that nigeria's major problem is the constitution and that the country will be politically transformed if it has a good constitution. however, there are lots of other people who believe that there is nothing wrong with nigeria's constitution. for these people, the bane of nigeria's problems is leadership failure. former military president babangida is of this conviction. and so, he strove to produce a good leader for the country before leaving office as the military president. in his transition agenda from military government to civilian administration, he cancelled the applications of 18 political parties. he formed only two political parties: the national republican convention (nrc) and the social democratic party (sdp). all the politicians who wished to contest for the office of the president were compelled to do so under these two platforms. the intention was evidently to produce a leader that would emerge not through the evocation of primordial ethnic sentiments. he wanted a leader that would have national acceptance, a leader that would work for national integration and progress of nigeria. it was under this two-party arrangement that the late chief m.k. abiola was declared the winner of the 1993 election. it was an election that many described as most credible and fair. it was, unfortunately, cancelled by former president babangida himself. commenting on the two-party system, kuka says, "a two party arrangement almost automatically dislodged regionalism and ethnicity as metaphors for political expressions at the national level" (kukah, 2003). the two-party system was later abandoned as a political process for producing the right leaders. and yet, for some other people, particularly human rights activists, the root cause of nigeria's match to self-destruction is the lack of respect for the rule of law. each of these factors is valid in itself. and each contributes to the current state of things and mood in nigeria. each of them, however, cannot, in isolation, make nigeria to be el dorado. there is an inextricable connection between the three of them. they are contiguous terms. this is why this paper regards them as a trinity of factors necessary for the political transformation of nigeria. the trinity of factors in this section, practical examples are given to showcase that these three factors are relevant and must all be there for political transformation to take place. we begin with the failure of leadership, which has become a hobbyhorse and which many believe to pose the most significant challenge to nigeria. chinua achebe emphasises leadership failure as the irrefragable cause of the political imbroglio in nigeria. in his words: "the trouble with nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership" (achebe, 1983). emmanuel idike subscribes to this view by saying, "leadership is also the greatest problem of nigeria" (idike, 1998). this opinion has been repeated by other thinkers ad nauseam. it has been hyped so much that it appears to be nothing but the truth. it is not the whole truth, however. it is only partially true. the coup plotters in nigeria had also claimed that the problem of 97 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june nigeria was leadership failure. each of them had accused his predecessor of failing to provide the required leadership. in his coup speech in 1983, for example, muhammad buhari said that "the corrupt, inept and insensitive leadership" was the source of nigeria's problems (olajide, 1983). president babangida, however, while assessing the performance of the ousted military administration of muhammad buhari, said in his coup speech, "the last twenty months have not witnessed any significant changes. contrary to expectations, we have so far been subjected to a steady deterioration in the general standard of living…" (babangida, 2006). the military juntas who affirmed leadership failure as the fons et origo of nigeria's hydra-headed problems did little or nothing significant themselves to buttress their claim. be that as it may, if we direct our gaze to the african scene, it can be seen that africans had had some good leaders. some of them include nelson mandela, julius nyerere, nkrumah, etc. they had something praiseworthy attached to them but not significant enough to lift their respective countries away from being classified as developing economies; neither did they set up viable and virile political structures that would bring some lasting effects in the lives of their people. perhaps they were hamstrung by the defects in their respective constitutions, for good leadership is always dovetailed with a good constitution. so, the hackneyed belief that the cardinal source of nigeria's malaise is leadership should not be adopted hook, line and sinker. despite their desire and determination to succeed, the coup plotters failed because they suspended the constitution and acted arbitrarily. they rejected the rule of law and worked according to their whims and caprices. they governed by decrees issued by themselves and not by the constitution drafted by the people. even the civilian administrators who received the reins of power from the military dictators act with gross impunity towards the constitution. they ignore and flout extant laws without scruples, ending in failures like their military predecessors. beyond this, the civilian administrators are destined to fail in their political agenda even if they have the good intention to succeed because the constitution under which they operate is defective and flawed in many ways. it was not framed to reflect the ethnic and religious diversities of nigeria. there are wild hues and cries over it. the people themselves did not even draft it. they did not gather to decide how to live together and be governed. searching for the factors that would bring nigeria out of the woods, there is the need for a constitution that is all-inclusive and acceptable to all sections of the country. that is the first thing. the second is good leadership. the third is obedience to the constitution, the rule of law. the leader and the subjects must obey the law. these three factors are symbiotically related. they constitute a trinity of factors. the idea of a trinity of factors is drawn from three persons in one god – the father, the son and the holy spirit. the son is begotten eternally by the father. the holy spirit is the bond of love that binds the father and the son. these three persons worked in synergy for the salvation of man. analogically to the trinity of persons in god, political leadership should take its origin from the constitution. at the same time, the rule of law should be the ligament or the 98 umezinwa the political transformation of nigeria – relevant factors umbilical cord that binds the constitution with the leadership. the trinity of factors must be functional to realise the political transformation that nigeria desperately needs. when any of this trinity of factors is dysfunctional, there is always a morass in the polity. a constitution is in inertia when it has no leader to enforce it. a leader is politically blind and ineffective when he has no constitution to guide him. both the constitution and the leadership are tenuous without the rule of law. a good constitution without a good leader, or a good leader without a good constitution, or a good constitution in which the leader and the people act outside the law cannot lead to a political paradise. let us now see how the dynamism of the relevant factors can be activated. a good constitution nigeria is a heterogenous entity, a mismatch or hotchpotch of more than 250 ethnic groups with different worldviews and ideologies. the ethnic groups had respectively used oligarchy, aristocracy and democracy and their different formulations as their preferred forms of government before they were forcefully brought together, through the contrivance of the colonial masters, to occupy the geographical space called nigeria. this union is weak. it is not cohesive, nor is it integrative nor harmonious. because its constituent parts are disparate and lack internal harmony, the union has failed to produce rapid development. the current constitution was framed without considering the different traditional forms of government already in existence. and so, there has been the problem of integration. chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu, in his attempt to proffer a solution to the integration problem, proposed that nigeria should enact a law in which any nigerian can acquire a political right in his place of birth and marriage (ojukwu, 1989). but this suggestion has largely been ignored. nevertheless, through dialogue, nigerians should come together to decide how they wish to be governed. the intermittent alterations in the 1999 constitution made by members of the national assembly do not satisfy the people's yearnings for a new constitution. nigerians must gather as equals and engage themselves in fruitful dialogues and arguments. as habermas would say, "in discourse what is called the force of the better argument is wholly unforced" (habermas, 2007). in dialogue, a superior argument is evident and is easily adopted. besides, nigeria needs this national conversation because africans are known for using dialogue to achieve consensus. they dialogue until they reach a consensus. the consensus is negotiated through compromises and adjustments of positions. in consensus, the opinions of the minorities are accommodated, or their voluntary consent is respectfully sought and obtained in any course of action (wiredu, 1995). if people reach a consensus about anything, they will likely give that thing the cooperation it requires. this is because belief and action go together (copi, 1978). if someone believes in something, it reflects consciously and unconsciously in his action. if people believe in a constitution, they give it their maximum support. if the constitution does not reflect their wishes, compliance with it will be a mirage or, at best, it will be done haphazardly. and no leader can successfully implement its contents. the national dialogue will help mitigate ethnicity and religion's negative impact on national politics. it will set the limit of these elements in politics when it is done with 99 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june honesty and sincerity. the result will be tolerance and the absence of the tyranny of the majority; it will lead to a situation in which every section will feel a sense of belonging and national pride, ultimately stimulating patriotism. so, the national dialogue should fundamentally aim at improving the current constitution. a constitution is a body of laws and principles that serve as a guide on how the members of a group ought to act and ought to be governed. and a constitution is good if the people themselves draft it. constitution is, indeed, the expression of the people's desires, wishes and expectations. it is not separable from the people. it is the aspirations of the people that are incarnated in written form. and as the people did not draft the present nigerian constitution, it must be reframed to reflect their wishes and desires. some grey areas need to be addressed to make it the people's constitution that has all the potential to bring about the transformation required for development. the national dialogue will do it better than the national assembly, whose decisions are often influenced by party and ethnic considerations. those who gather for the national dialogue can deliberate on the following: a. how to prevent the making of money out of office. the nigerian constitution should be reframed in such a way as to prevent public office holders from making money out of office. this has become necessary because money is easily stolen from the common treasury. it was reported, for example, by economist magazine that an estimated amount of 600 billion dollars was pilfered from the national treasury from the time of independence in 1960 to 2019 (ayo-aderele, 2019). while the stealing continues today, the country is going on a borrowing spree. on june 30, 2022, the country's total public debt stock was 42.84 trillion naira, equivalent to 103.31 billion dollars (debt management office nigeria, june 30 2022). so, public office holders must be stopped from siphoning money from the national purse. if the mechanism for doing this is firmly and successfully established, the resultant effect would be that not every tom, dick and harry would present himself as a candidate for a political office. it will be the preserve of those who are prepared to serve. the poor will not attempt it, for he knows already the obstacles put in place to prevent one from using political office to lift oneself from poverty. however, he may decide to run for political office to have the opportunity to create an enabling environment for wealth creation in which many people, including himself, will be beneficiaries. similarly, the rich may also shun political office since it is not a good investment; it does not bring good returns. nevertheless, he may dare to enter politics to serve his compatriots and help them escape poverty. besides, reframing the constitution to prevent the embezzlement of public funds will enfeeble ethnic agitations for power, especially at the federal level. this is because as the political office holders who usually exploit and deploy primordial ethnic sentiments to win elections will be receding from partisan politics because it is no longer profitable to do so, the negative impacts of ethnicity on body politics will drop significantly and eventually peter out. the cry of marginalisation and the call for the rotation of political offices will also fizzle out. 100 umezinwa the political transformation of nigeria – relevant factors if we look at the developed economies, we see systems with structures that prevent office holders from benefitting unduly from office. in these systems, politicians demonstrate maximum detachment from the trappings of office and show commitment, unconditional and unalloyed loyalty to the state. they donate themselves for the service of their people. they do so even though they stand to lose financially. for example, president bill clinton and president barack obama were poorer when they left office. bill clinton was in debt of 16 million dollars when he left the white house. he paid off this debt later and increased his net worth through speeches he made within and outside u.s. obama increased his net worth by writing books and making paid speeches. president donald trump said he would not receive the 400,000 dollars, which is the annual salary of an american president. his net worth also dropped significantly at the time he left office. the recent resignations of government officials in britain point to the fact that the british people are not in office to make money but to serve. the former prime minister, mr david cameron, resigned when his position on brexit was defeated in a referendum. mrs theresa may resigned as british prime minister because of her failure to negotiate well the withdrawal of britain from the e.u. mr boris johnson stepped aside as british prime minister due to some of his actions that were inconsistent with his office. mrs liz truss resigned after less than two months in office as prime minister because she could not actualise her promise to the british people. this is an eloquent epiphany that her desire for the job of prime minister was predicated on service to the people. she quit when her ambitious program was no longer feasible. she would have trudged on if her motive in politics was to make money from the office. mr michael bates, the british minister of state for international development in 2018, offered his resignation just because he arrived one minute late when the debate in the parliament was scheduled to begin. he felt his lateness was very disrespectful. nigeria needs people ready to serve, not predators or people who want to siphon the public treasury. and it is necessary to understudy countries like u.s., uk, germany, france, etc., which have established structures that do not make it easy for politicians to steal into the public treasury. nigeria has intellectuals who can make such data quickly available. b. there is a need to reform the electoral system such that no clear winner emerges at the end of an election. it is to be such that the party whose candidate scores the highest votes goes into coalition with other parties to get the required number of votes. in nigeria, a presidential candidate, for example, must score the highest number of votes and obtain 25 per cent of the total votes in each state in at least two-thirds of the 36 states and abuja. the highest number of votes ought to be defined in the new national dialogue. the bar of the highest number of votes vis-à-vis the total number of votes cast must be raised and fixed. similarly, the percentage of the votes required to secure a point in a state ought to be raised. the parties will align and realign with this new arrangement to produce a clear winner. in this way, many ethnic groups and members of other political parties will be part of the new government. in germany, israel, etc., parties go into coalition with other parties with different ideologies to form a government. 101 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june c. on security – according to data from the security incidents tracker report on security breaches between january 1 and july 29, 2022, 7,222 nigerians were killed, 3,823 were abducted, and 2,840 incidents of insecurity were witnessed. about 1,499 nigerians sustained injuries in violent attacks in 505 local government areas (odeniyi, 2022). the abovementioned number of nigerians, that is, the 7,222 nigerians, that were killed in seven months, from january to july, is much more than 3,144 nigerians who died as a result of the coronavirus from its inception up to july 15, 2022. security of life and property is the primary duty of the government. that is the reason why the government is formed. as john locke would emphasise, "the great and chief end…of men's uniting into common-wealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property. to which in the state of nature there are many things wanting" (locke, 1980). by property, he means "life, health, liberty and possession." so, this problem of insecurity needs to be addressed seriously. the best way to address it is to introduce state police. it should not be an option but an imperative. this proposal is rooted in what aristotle says, that some sense of preciousness is observed when things are privately owned (aristotle, 1990). this preciousness is more when there is private ownership than when things are communally owned. there is less interest and concern when a thing is a common property. a personal thing, on the other hand, is guarded jealously. this is in line with the claim that the first instinct is the instinct of self-preservation. even the idea of thomas hobbes and spinoza that man is fundamentally selfish bolsters the claim that the sense of preciousness accompanies privately owned property. hence, in nigeria, the police in any state should be people whose place of birth is in that state. the advantages of state police are: 1. they know the nooks and crannies of the state. with this knowledge, they are in a good position to flush criminals out of their hideouts. 2. they will work with a sense of preciousness, knowing that the state belongs to them. 3. they can respond to emergencies under the governor as the state's chief security officer. the state police should work in pari passu with the federal police. their respective roles are to be clearly defined to avoid conflict. d. those who gather for the national conversation should discuss whether to adopt chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu's proposal that a place of birth or marriage ought to offer someone a political right in that place. barack obama's parents were migrants from kenya. because they acquired american citizenship, barack obama, born and bred in america, worked there and later became the first black american president. kamala harris, the first female vice president of america, was born in california to her parents, who migrated from india and jamaica. while her father was from jamaica, her mother was from india. mr rishi sunak, the current british prime minister, was born to indian parents who migrated from east africa to britain. some advantages accrue from using the place of birth to acquire political rights. the first is that it helps in the subtle and gradual weakening of the impact of ethnic struggle in the polity. when a person from yoruba parents, born in anambra state, can contest and win 102 umezinwa the political transformation of nigeria – relevant factors an election there and vice versa, it signals a political turnaround in nigeria. it means that a new spirit in political and ethnic relations has arisen. in this spirit, the office holders will be more alert to their responsibilities, for they have nowhere to fall back on when they renege on their political promises. ethnic ascription is why a president cannot be impeached in nigeria. no matter the number of breaches he commits against the constitution and his clear display of ineptitude, his people in the national assembly will be up in arms against any attempt to impeach him. so, there is an urgent need to adopt ojukwu's proposal to enervate ethnic affiliation. good leadership plato's popular saying is that the problems in the states would be insoluble "till philosophers become kings in the world, or till those we now call kings and rulers really and truly become philosophers" (plato, 1983). this claim is founded on reason, which plato says, is eminently possessed by the philosopher kings. however, aristotle notes that "passion warps the rule even of the best of men" (aristotle, 1990). if aristotle's claim is accepted, it means that the philosopher king can be influenced by his emotions to such an extent that he can veer away from the end of the state. the philosopher king is not only rational. he is a rational as well as an emotional being. even kant would also criticise plato as he said, "it is not to be expected that kings philosophise or that philosophers become kings, nor is it to be desired because possession of power corrupts the free judgement of reason inevitably" (friedrich, 1949). nevertheless, a trustworthy and competent leader is needed to pilot the ship of the state. for anything composed of parts, there is always a dominant part that concatenates the other parts and makes them functional and harmonious. without the dominant part, the other constituent parts are disparate; there cannot be coherence and cohesion in the whole. this is why, with regard to a political community, a leader is very important. in line with the trinitarian principle explained earlier, a leader should emerge according to the constitution's stipulation. accordingly, a leader should be a member of a political community, empowered by the same community to implement what the community decides for itself. he is not, by this very fact, superior to the community. as a community member, he must abide by the decisions and principles guiding the community just like everyone else. he ought not to act arbitrarily or outside the constitution. that would mean going beyond his mandate. if he has fresh ideas that would benefit the community, such ideas must be submitted to the legislators, the people's representatives, for proper scrutiny. he should not arrogate to himself the absolute power of hobbes' representative personality. for this reason, the constitution should be reframed to ensure that only the leaders elected by the people should emerge as winners at the end of an election cycle. people ought not to be allowed to rig themselves into office. anyone who foists himself into office by hook and crook has acted, by so doing, disdainfully against the constitution. he has poorly begone. he is more likely to govern without adhering to the principles and stipulations of the constitution. he is destined to fail, for he would raise strong opposition against his rule for spurning the constitution. this will have additional consequences for not fulfilling the 103 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june wishes and aspirations of the people. in reframing the constitution, it ought to be ensured that a political leader must have the requisite education, moral integrity, predictability and competence. education will afford him the tool to understand the constitution and how to apply it concretely to achieve results. it will help him to understand global politics and its socio-political implications, particularly as it affects the country. he should be someone whose moral life is not questionable. he lives above board. he is irreproachable and predictable. he is competent in the sense that he is visionary, innovative and able to apply theory to practice. how would the people know whether a candidate possesses these qualities? to know this, all contestants should have mandatory public debates. absence from debates should disqualify one from running for the office in question. the people have the right to know to whom they are handing over their government. the debates help them to make wise decisions. public debates by aspirants are now in vogue in developed democracies like the us, germany, france, etc. the legislators should be honest and courageous to impeach any executive for dereliction of duty or for acting in contradistinction to the stipulations of the constitution. if they do not do so, the people should be at liberty to rise to take back their mandate from both the executives and the legislators through protests. protests have not worked in nigeria because of entrenched ethnic affiliation and tribal sentiments. but they can begin to be effective when the proposals made earlier to weaken the negative impacts of ethnicity are adopted. if the measures are meticulously applied, ethnicity would be massively downgraded. people should not look askance at protests. as john stuart mill would say, "bad men need nothing more to compass their ends than that good men should look on and do nothing. he is not a good man who, without a protest, allows wrong to be committed in his name, and with the means which he helps to supply" (mill, 1867). protests have worked in some countries. president zine el abidine ben ali of tunisia, who was in power for 23 years, was ousted through popular civil resistance that lasted for 28 days. the people revolted against the harsh economic conditions, corruption and denial of political freedom. in 2011, a popular uprising in egypt forced president hosni mubarak to step down as president. it was led by the youths who accused his government of poverty and repression. rule of law amnesty international reports that from 2015 to 2019, the nigerian government has disobeyed 40 court orders. this is the latest figures released by the organisation (sesan, 2019). disobedience to court orders causes disequilibrium in the trinity of factors. this is part of the reason things have gone haywire in nigeria. a personal example is the hallmark of leadership. if leaders do not respect and obey the constitution or the order of the competent court of law, it precipitates the rule of the jungle, which is a recipe for anarchy. it is said that the court is the last hope of the common man. but this mantra should not be sounded only when a court's ruling is in one's favour. court judgement should be welcomed, willy-nilly. 104 umezinwa the political transformation of nigeria – relevant factors socrates was a shining and paradigmatic example of someone who obeyed the law. under trumped-up charges by his adversaries, namely, meletus, anytus and lycon, he was tried, convicted and condemned to death (plato, 1982). he was thrown into prison, waiting for the day he would be summarily discharged from this world. his bosom and boon friend, crito, came to the prison to inform him that he and his two other friends, simmias of thebes and cebes and his numerous other friends were ready and prepared to contribute money to facilitate his escape from prison to thessaly or any other place of his choice. socrates jettisoned their plan on the ground that this would be tantamount to disobedience to the court order and disrespect to the constitution. he had already accepted the court ruling against him even though it was manifestly a travesty of justice, a glaring miscarriage of justice. for him, a city would be topsy-turvy if laws were not obeyed. the political leaders would set dangerous and tragic examples when they did not obey court orders. it would make them not even have the moral courage to compel their subjects to comply with court decisions. besides, disobeying the court orders would be a gross violation of the separation of powers enshrined in the constitution. the separation of power was clearly articulated by montesquieu, who had warned of the dangers of interference in the judicial process (montesquieu, 2008). the citizens, whose desires and aspirations are expressed in the constitution, should not contradict themselves by going against it, either brazenly or clandestinely. the constitution and the citizens are inseparable; they are inextricably joined together. as noted, the constitution is the incarnate expression of the citizens' intentions and desires in written form. for them to act against the constitution is to act against themselves. law is what characterises human society. a society without a law approximates itself to an animal kingdom. the same is true of a society with a body of laws that are flagrantly flouted. laws have their basis in morality. as omeregbe states, "what distinguishes human societies sharply from the animal groups is the fact that human societies are moral societies…the more moral norms are flouted in any society, the more the society in question approximates the animal groups, and the less it develops” (omoregbe, 2018). emphasising the importance of law to society aristotle maintains, "for as man is the best of animals when perfected, so he is the worst of all when sundered from law and justice" (aristotle, 1990). so, man is at his best when guided by the law but worst when he separates himself from the law. conclusion things in nature have essential elements under which they grow and survive. seeds, for example, need water, air and warmth to germinate and flourish. one of these elements cannot, in isolation, make a seed to germinate. the three elements must be present for this to happen. similarly, fish need food, water and oxygen to survive. when any one of these is wanting, there is a problem. the fish will die off. on the part of man, he needs a balanced diet for healthy living. things that make up a balanced diet include protein, fat, carbs, water, minerals, vitamins and fibre. each of these elements is independent of and interdependent with other elements to bring about the overall good health of the person, 105 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june just as in the trinity of persons, god the father, god the son, and god the holy spirit god play respective and collaborative roles in the salvation of man. similarly, a political society needs the three relevant factors to exist and to attain its end. these factors are a good constitution, good leadership and the rule of law. one factor alone is not enough to bring about political transformation. a good leader cannot achieve the end of the state if there is no good constitution to guide him or if he neglects to follow the rule of law in exercising his duty. policy makers should look closely at these relevant factors in their formulation of policies that are aimed at the political transformation of nigeria. references achebe, c. (1983). the trouble with nigeria, enugu: fourth dimension publishing co., ltd, p.1. ayo-aderele, a. (2019). “nearly $600bn stolen from nigeria – economist” aristotle. (1990). politics, trans. by h. rackham, cambridge: university press, pp.83, 265 babangida, (2006). “text of general ibrahim babangida's coup speech” copi, i.m. (1978). introduction to logic, new york: macmillan publishing co. p.59. debt management office nigeria: nigeria's total debt stock as at june 30, 2022, friedrich, c.j. (1949). the philosophy of kant, new york: the modern library, p.456. habermas, j. (2007). moral consciousness and communicative action, cambridge: polity press, 2007, p.160. idike, e.e. (1998). “leadership for the new era” in africa: philosophy and public affairs, ed. by j.o. oguejiofor, enugu: delta publications ltd, p.139. kukah m.h. (2003). democracy and civil society in nigeria, ibadan: spectrum books limited p.105. locke, j. (1980). second treatise of government, cambridge: hackett publishing company, p.66. https://punchng.com/nearly-600bn-stolen-from-nigeria-since-independenceeconomist/ http://againstbabangida.com/index.php/resources/speeches/698-text-of-generalibrahim-babangidas-coup-speech.html https://dmo.gov.ng/news-and-events/dmo-in-the-news/press-release-nigeria-stotal-public-debt-stock-as-at-june-30-2022 umezinwa the political transformation of nigeria – relevant factors 106 https://punchng.com/nearly-600bn-stolen-from-nigeria-since-independence-economist/ http://againstbabangida.com/index.php/resources/speeches/698-text-of-general-ibrahim-babangidas-coup-speech.html https://dmo.gov.ng/news-and-events/dmo-in-the-news/press-release-nigeria-s-total-public-debt-stock-as-at-june-30-2022 mill, j.s. (1867). “inaugural address delivered to the university of st andrews” https://www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/780378 montesquieu, b. (2008). the spirit of laws, trans. by thomas nugent, vol. 1, new york: the colonial press, p.152. odeniyi, s. (2022). “7,222 killed, 3,832 abducted in seven months – report” ojukwu, e.o. (1989). because i am involved, ibadan: spectrum books ltd, p.21. olajide, a. (1983). “ ” omoregbe, j. (2018). knowing philosophy, lagos: joja educational research and publishers ltd, 2018, p.198 plato, (1983). the republic, trans. by desmond lee, new york: penguin books ltd, 1983, p.263. plato. (1982). the last days of socrates, trans. by hugh tredennick, pp. 53 – 93. sesan, k. (2019). “buhari has disobeyed court 40 times – amnesty lawyer” wiredu, k. (1995). “democracy and consensus in african traditional politics: a plea for a non-party polity” in the centennial review, vol. 39, no.1, p.62. https://punchng.com/7222-killed-3823-abducted-in-seven-months-report/ gen. muhammadu buhari's coup speech on december 31 1983 https://wap.org.ng/read/gen-muhammadu-buharis-coup-speech-on-31stdecember-1983/ nigeria bankrupt, hopeless without new constitution, says afe babalola | the guardian nigeria news nigeria and world news — nigeria — the guardian nigeria news – nigeria and world news https://www.signalng.com/buhari-has-disobeyed-court-40-times-amnestyinternational-lawyer/ olayinka, c, nzor e. and afolabi a. (2022). 107 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june https://punchng.com/7222-killed-3823-abducted-in-seven-months-report/ file:///c:\\users\\cletus\\documents\\gen.%20muhammadu%20buhari's%20coup%20speech%20on%2031st%20december%201983 https://wap.org.ng/read/gen-muhammadu-buharis-coup-speech-on-31st-december-1983/ https://guardian.ng/news/nigeria-bankrupt-hopeless-without-new-constitution-says-afe-babalola/ https://www.signalng.com/buhari-has-disobeyed-court-40-times-amnesty-international-lawyer/ 1 covid-19 pandemic: a pandemic that has dramatically challenged and changed, and continues to challenge and change our lives and ways of doing things like no other in recent times remy n. onyewuenyi, cssp, phd (very rev fr. prof) vice-chancellor, spiritan university nneochi, abia state, nigeria being a lead paper presented at the 2021 international conference on the theme: covid-19 pandemic: lessons and challenges for africa in a changing world, hosted by thomas aquinas initiative for catholic education (taice) in collaboration with spiritan school of philosophy, isienu-nsukka & aihwa center for integrated health care in africa, from february 25 th to 26 th 2021 at spiritan school of philosophy, isienunsukka, enugu state, nigeria introduction i am very much at home with monitoring changes and developments. my most recent publication titled the villagescape of my yesteryears (july 2020) tried to capture the changed and still changing villagescape of the village of my birth – egbelu-nguru – in imo state. in some earlier articles and publications, i have documented the role of railway development and the growth of export agriculture in nigeria: 1900-1950 (1981);the effect of railway construction on the growth of export agriculture: the nigerian experience (2011); the evolution and spatial diffusion of informal sector activity in nigeria: 1900-1989 (1990); and how an educational institution can transform the spatial-economic landscape of a rural community: the federal polytechnic idah experience (2015). dramatic as they are, none of the above changes and developments can be compared with the effects of covid-19 pandemic. permit me to appreciate the foresight, courage and sense of corporate responsibility of the organizers and financiers of this conference: thomas aquinas initiative for catholic education (taice), spiritan school of philosophy, isienu-nsukka and aihwa center for integrated health care in africa. getting involved in initiatives of this magnitude deserves encouragement and appreciation. the conference theme: covid-19 pandemic: lessons and challenges for africa in a changing world is a very relevant and timely one in the context of what we all are going through right now worldwide. the pandemic nature of the effects and impacts of covid-19 is succinctly captured by the multivariate nature of the conference‘s sub-themes, especially in the african context. i have no doubts aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 2 whatsoever that the various presenters and discussants will do justice to these subthemes in their chosen areas, and i equally hope that we will all be greatly enriched by these contributions in our understanding and management of the challenges confronting us as a result of this deadly covid-19 pandemic. this presentation focuses, in a summary form, the writer‘s particular areas of interest on the lessons and challenges of covid-19 pandemic for africa in a changing world. lessons and challenges when the news of coronavirus (covid-19) outbreak was publicly declared in late december 2019, health officials cited wuhan‘s huainan seafood wholesale market, china as ground zero for the pandemic. ever since then there have been a global debate and all sorts of ―conspiracy theories‖ over how the pandemic began including its alleged links with the g5 technology. even as we speak, in some quarters of our climes, this deadly virus is still viewed with skepticism. yet its devastating effects are being felt in every aspect of our human existence. it has radically challenged and changed some of our ways of doing things and introduced the era of new normal. the new normal has exposed our various levels of vulnerability, weaknesses and unpreparedness in healthcare, education, economy and infrastructure supply sectors. africa should count herself blessed because her death toll of covid-19 has not been as alarming as in the continents of europe, americas, asia and the pacific. i want to underscore the fact that africa is blessed because if continents and countries with far better economic infrastructure and medical facilities fared so badly in covid-19 death toll, imagine what could have happened to africa with her very fragile, unstable and insufficient or deficit economic and healthcare infrastructures. by near universal proclamation, the year 2020 – the covid-19 year is globally believed to be a very difficult and challenging, if not the worst, year in not-sorecent memory as a result of the coronavirus pandemic. the covid-19 pandemic and the damages it has inflicted and continues to inflict to our emotional, physical, and fiscal health continue to reverberate twelve months after the country has declared a public health emergency. in this time, millions worldwide have been hospitalized or quarantined, thousands have died, millions of workers have been laid off, companies, industries and institutions have collapsed, and many economies have been distressed, regressed or depressed. yet, right now, we are not out of the woods. olanrewaju apata (2021), the public relations officer, ibadan jamb zonal office, summarizing his impressions on the impacts of covid-19 pandemic wrote: long before the face masks became a part of our accoutrements, before social distancing became the norm and entered the lexicon, and long before onyewuenyi covid-19 pandemic: a pandemic… 3 sanitizers became a part of our lives, only a few appreciated the long-term benefits of aiming for the best in our formal and informal lives. the current covid-19 pandemic is an adversity that mankind is learning to grapple with and by so doing, the world is not only learning to live with the deadly virus, but also made certain compromises that have altered and reshaped the way we once lived our lives. just like the industrial revolution, forced on man, new ways of doing things, the pandemic is slowly changing corporate life. as the private sector continues to count its losses while adjusting to a pandemic that has cut into profits, disrupted production and taken a toll on the workforce, among others, the public sector, indeed, had not fared much better as government at all levels had to grapple with the angst of citizens who were forced to endure crippling lockdowns and other constraints. impacts on education and educational institutions commenting on the collateral damage done to the nigerian education system by the coronavirus pandemic recently, prof. yemi osinbajo (2020), the vice president of nigeria observed thus: the emergence of the covid-19 pandemic has, no doubt, adversely affected the education sector and the economy at both the national and global levels as schools and businesses have been forced to shut down. perhaps, one of the lessons learnt from the ravages of the pandemic is that the nigerian education system should henceforth be driven by innovative educational technology for both learning and teaching if our children are to be globally competitive (jambulletin, vol. 1 no. 98, november 16, 2020, p.2). echoing similar sentiments, the federal minister of education, mallam adamu adamu (2021) said: following the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic in the early part of 2020, the first major step taken as a nation was to close down all the teaching and learning facilities nationwide in march 2020. upon the nationwide closure, we proceeded to float online learning facilities. the major challenges we had were electricity and internet access for teachers and learners. consequently, while some learners continued their education, others, especially in the rural areas could not, thereby putting our learners at different levels of exposure. in general, the covid-19 pandemic exposed the weakness of the education system in many developing countries and the urgent need on how to improve the sector through technology and mobilization of critical support. for many universities and educational institutions in nigeria, the covid-19 threat became real around the third week of march 2020 when the federal government ordered the immediate closedown of academic activities as a measure to control the spread of the virus. their world changed rapidly. the suggestion or rather the order to shift academic activities into virtual classes or moving classes online became a big puzzle, to say the least, as most institutions were quite unprepared for this. this new way of service delivery in the education sector posed a huge challenge to institutions, staff and students alike. the former executive secretary, national aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 4 universities commission, prof. peter okebukola (2021) lamented that,in nigeria, the delivery of academic curriculum in over 90 per cent of the public schools was halted and only some rudimentary form of online teaching and learning was implemented in about 28 per cent of the private schools during the covid-19 lockdown. challenging as it was initially, it got everyone creative in moving some of the academic activities to virtual. the decision to fully move academic activities online required a great deal of planning and funding. for example, the needs of students with economic insecurity for public resources, such as wi-fiaccess, needed to be factored in the planning and funding. although, it is a reality that owing to government‘s other priorities, education does not seem to receive its fair share of the national budget, the situation got worse during the covid-19 pandemic. if the pandemic has taught us anything, it is that institutions and individuals alike are better off if they build resiliency into their everyday structures and processes. for institutions, that means providing tools needed to foster good collaboration and services that are easily accessible. for individuals, that means taking advantage of those tools, services and opportunities to ease stress or anxiety. with reference to the acquisition of new skills occasioned by the pandemic, the minister of communications and digital economy, dr. ali pantami, recently (20/10/2020) urged universities to emphasize more on skills acquisition than paper qualification, adding that such would make graduates self-reliant. according to him, in developed countries, less preference is given to paper qualification and more to skill acquisition. paper qualification is supposed to be a validation of the skills acquired (cf. education in the media in jambulletin, vol.1 no.95, october 26, 2020, p.4). impacts on economy and workplaces the economies of many countries have been shattered by the pandemic, and these economic challenges are impacting people‘s lives and choices radically. in the job market and employment sectors, generally things have gone from bad to worse: unemployment figures shot up, many of those who had jobs lost them as industries and organisations were forced to shut down by lockdowns and restrictions, those who had still their jobs went without salaries for months because of poor cash-flow and returns. many small businesses are ailing; the hospitality industries have been decimated, some others are shedding workers. the pandemic dealt a heavy blow on the nigerian film industry, one that it is still yet to recover from. due to the closure of cinemas across the country for months, films initially slated for release suffered delayed-release. however, video on onyewuenyi covid-19 pandemic: a pandemic… 5 demand (vod) platforms are on hand to save the situation, by bringing film lovers some of the anticipated films of the year. the shutdown of tourism has a massive impact on many african countries, like kenya and tanzania, with tourist economies. figuring out how to get euros or dollars flowing in while still protecting citizens‘ lives was a challenge for these countries. balancing the risks and rewards has not been an easy one. worldwide, the tourism industry accounts for more than 330 million jobs. and it is estimated that about 121 million of these jobs have been lost due to the pandemic. in other words, in tourism-dependent countries and regions, the pain from covid-19induced shutdowns is amplified (cf. bruce wallin, 2020). admittedly, the global coronavirus pandemic has stunted some personal development among many, but it has also been observed that some trends,like digital transformation, that help others to reignite their ambitions have been accelerated by covid-19. technology and digital connectivity have advanced so far and so fast that some people have started to ask, ―do we really need to be in an office, together, to do our work?‖ it seems that with the growth in virtual jobs, one‘s physical location is becoming less relevant as one can work-from-anywhere. covid-19 has fast-forwarded digital adoption by at least five years. a good number of persons have experienced some form of ―skill transformation‖ since the start of the pandemic.and since the world has moved a very significant proportion of its normal operations on online, tech skills are no longer limited to tech roles. like it or not, digital skills are now part of almost every role. technology industry leaders like facebook, apple, amazon, google, and microsoft are looking for digital skill sets that include engineering, digital transformation, security, and tech infrastructure. in the ict world, also, many programme developers have added features that are aimed at bringing some ―zen‖ into the mostly-online life: multitasking got better; more delight for more people; more control over when facebook can collect your information, etc. in the area of virtual meeting skills, applications like zoom, google classroom and microsoft meet, etc. are becoming household names.it is a fact that cannot be denied that accessing services and resources through digital means increased very significantly during covid-19 pandemic lockdown. videoconferencing via zoom, pace, etc. helped to alleviate loneliness, bridged the gap of feeling alone and wanting to feel connected. the covid-19 pandemic and quarantine not only created an explosion in demand for streaming video, they very significantly increased our vulnerability online. all that streaming created a chance for fraud, in the form of bots pretending to be people streaming shows in order to cash in advertisement money(cf. mitch wagner (2021). how an oracle team spotted ‗streamscam,‘ the biggest connected tv ad scam yet in oracle news connect, january 21, 2021). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 6 impacts on our psyche and mental health while covid-19 has affected and continues to affect us physically, the restrictions and changes to our lives have significantly affected and continue to affect our psyche and mental health. it has been argued that an idle mind is the devil‘s workshop. the sharp rise in the cases of domestic and sexual violence and abuses during the covid-19 pandemic lockdowns and restrictions as observed by social scientists, especially criminologists and demographers, seems to justify the above saying. also, the huge success of the #endsars protest may be attributed to the fact that youths who have been out of schools and classrooms for a very long time found the movement a very veritable opportunity and outlet to expend or vent their long-bottled energy and frustration. no doubt, the covid-19 pandemic has brought incalculable suffering and trauma. a good number of people have lost loved ones and jobs. some covid-19 survivors are still dealing with brutal symptoms, months after they contracted the disease. people have been trapped at home on account of lockdowns and a good number of people are struggling with loneliness. marriages and families have been pushed to the breaking point and beyond. in the words of matt simon (2020), ―the pandemic shook the existence of all humanity.‖ these covid-19-induced existential crises have led many to begin to wonder: what is the meaning of life? who will we be when this is all over? the pandemic has made glaring inequities in our society more glaring than ever. this means that some communities and individuals have faced more trauma than others, and will enter recovery with fewer resources. this implies that: who we become during and after the pandemic depends on our systemic privileges. impacts on supply and demand chains an 82-year-old woman recently packed her granddaughter‘s car trunk full of food—including bags of rice, pasta, and powdered milk—just in case the essential health care worker with two jobs didn‘t know where her next meal would be coming from. the wise old woman knows what we all should know: hunger is a silent sickness. people with jobs as well as those without don‘t have enough food. workers providing essential services are hungry. college and university students are hungry. children are very hungry. in america, for example, the nonprofit group feeding america estimated that more than 50 million people experienced hunger in 2020 including 17 million children. even before covid-19, more than 35 million americans were considered food insecure. the pandemic exacerbated the problem. now, one in six people in the u.s. are projected to be hungry this year. what is your projection for africa? food banks and other service providers are working aggressively to keep up with demand. from march through the end of october, 2020 u.s. food banks https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bcc8/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&  https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bcc8/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&  https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bcc8/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&  https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bcca/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&  https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bcca/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&  https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bcca/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&  onyewuenyi covid-19 pandemic: a pandemic… 7 distributed 4.2 billion meals. more than 80 percent of food banks are serving more people than they did last year (2019). safety nets are being stretched by the historic need. two thirds of feeding america’s food banks are accepting volunteers. before covid-19, food banks depended on nearly 2 million volunteers per month. since the pandemic began, volunteerism is down as the need accelerates. the nigerian equivalent of meeting the food needs of those in most critical situations is termed palliatives. governments at various levels exploited this programme. the full impacts of these political palliatives are yet to be determined. but for sure, during this covid-19 era, the word palliatives gained some prominence and frequency in usage; and the price of food and food items soared during the pandemic as demands outstripped production and supply. impact and pressure on drug manufacturers as the new coronavirus continued its infectious rampage, extreme pressure was on drug-makers to quickly introduce vaccines and treatments that can stop the spread of covid-19. in the pursuit of covid-19 treatments and production of vaccines, nigerian institutions and research facilities have been lagging far behind on account of required infrastructure deficiency. for example, running computergenerated simulations that help discover these new drugs takes massive computing power and many nigerian institutions do not have access to such resources. what is on ground at the moment is not built for this kind of speed the covid-19 crisis demands. it would take months, if not years, to run some of the most processorintensive jobs on those systems, as modelling billions of molecule combinations against the key proteins that covid-19 needs to reproduce requires enormous calculations. all hope is not lost worldwide as leveraging on some of the available and affordable high-performance computing and cloud-based animation rendering platforms or technologies, such as gridmarkets located in oracle cloud data centres around the world, is yielding positive results. in march 2020, when the covid-19 pandemic reality became shockingly clear, it was hard to imagine that we would have a vaccine before the year ended, considering the time it usually takes to get these drugs through clinical trials. at that time, world health organization‘s (who) immediate challenge and priority centered on dealing with the virus‘s effects on the human population: how to treat it medically, what factors are helping it spread, what strategies are working to try to stop transmission. ―we needed to learn very quickly what this virus was and what were the best ways to prevent illness and death‖, stressed margaret harrist (2020), a who spokesperson. but the past few weeks have seen astounding progress on that front, with vaccines approved for use in multiple countries, and additional promising candidates on the horizon, thanks to new and advanced technologies. while the vaccine news is https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bccb/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&__f__=v0fuyvjhmdjrpmsh3tvidhxioxcpxvdguuccpvxmwox_0jozlazabqf6ah4ds_gbl2it8l1ttwurnivlz44y4gh6wht0kogw4igoxwf0mgsukgkcxiksaa9a-ks5kzsmrahregkgdlwz5eqh8iy4jyqytx1djyxvcs-xxacbggzdg2ydrjqxju5itc00z3gnr4tamkpl_mglictg5dmwz0cle6gumggtrrmvo7d6zxjihzoglhqmlv3lf4dtjhnbk5-nisdczx5jbuhq85bqq7pm3rhjd7kaswgps5krczpr5ufoijregy6zzcekk86ttzmcdrfp7hirvrpi5vnw7t-tst3ekv6kq-0_cgwpws7jt_hmalu_04vb9z_nezhd5h https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bccb/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&__f__=v0fuyvjhmdjrpmsh3tvidhxioxcpxvdguuccpvxmwox_0jozlazabqf6ah4ds_gbl2it8l1ttwurnivlz44y4gh6wht0kogw4igoxwf0mgsukgkcxiksaa9a-ks5kzsmrahregkgdlwz5eqh8iy4jyqytx1djyxvcs-xxacbggzdg2ydrjqxju5itc00z3gnr4tamkpl_mglictg5dmwz0cle6gumggtrrmvo7d6zxjihzoglhqmlv3lf4dtjhnbk5-nisdczx5jbuhq85bqq7pm3rhjd7kaswgps5krczpr5ufoijregy6zzcekk86ttzmcdrfp7hirvrpi5vnw7t-tst3ekv6kq-0_cgwpws7jt_hmalu_04vb9z_nezhd5h https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bccb/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&__f__=v0fuyvjhmdjrpmsh3tvidhxioxcpxvdguuccpvxmwox_0jozlazabqf6ah4ds_gbl2it8l1ttwurnivlz44y4gh6wht0kogw4igoxwf0mgsukgkcxiksaa9a-ks5kzsmrahregkgdlwz5eqh8iy4jyqytx1djyxvcs-xxacbggzdg2ydrjqxju5itc00z3gnr4tamkpl_mglictg5dmwz0cle6gumggtrrmvo7d6zxjihzoglhqmlv3lf4dtjhnbk5-nisdczx5jbuhq85bqq7pm3rhjd7kaswgps5krczpr5ufoijregy6zzcekk86ttzmcdrfp7hirvrpi5vnw7t-tst3ekv6kq-0_cgwpws7jt_hmalu_04vb9z_nezhd5h https://email.nationalgeographic.com/t/v6000001763ec24eafb9c21f6e96639818/15647820e1e84b730000021ef3a0bccc/15647820-e1e8-4b73-a81a-094253d966e4?__du__=v0g4rbktxg2gtthjdsy7ii3wabsriwmxgzj7x_oarfkfqaie3mwx22jg_r9sy1lwlgymvrrfidudbyjwkgakz6itagyv5xam3sbsn-fzju9xxpfwtsfrxbgw4nhcgldnvwyavcbdlqyqte1-nmubscma==&  aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 8 reason for cheer, it is clear this is only the beginning of the end. basic precautions such as hand washing, wearing of masks, and social and physical distancing will be more crucial if we hope to stay alive much longer here on earth. it has been observed here in nigeria that government‘s efforts to control or reduce the spread of covid-19 do not seem to produce their desired effects because it seems a good percentage of the population does not trust the government. for whatever reasons, there is a loss of confidence in the government and its agencies. alhaji ahmed matane, secretary to the state government (ssg) and chairman, niger state task force on covid-19 voiced his disappointment in this regard when he said: in spite of massive advocacy and sensitisation by the government, it is disappointing to see the crowd at worship centres, banks, markets, motor parks across the state flouting the coronavirus guidelines. we will be forced to take the painful decision of bringing the state under the covid-19 preventive, containment and emergency order if it remains clear that nigerlites are determined to flout the rules‖ (cf. news agency of nigeria, 2020).perhaps, thorough organisation, science-based research findings, and shared clear public health messages that tell the citizens exactly how to guard themselves and fellow citizens against the virus, might change the narrative. government‘s actions are hugely important as action speaks louder than words and proclamations. conclusion as awful as the pandemic has been, perhaps it has elicited some positive changes within us and within communities or countries. we have learnt some new things, other ways of doing things, and reprioritizing our values and expectations. we have also come to a fuller realisation of our capacity to a lot of growth when we go through hard things both as individuals and as communities or institutions. this pandemic will not last forever, but there will always be a new challenge to meet down the road; and there is no downside in being prepared. in other words, the pandemic has not only taught us but has reinforced the need to learn new skills and retool for an uncertain future. onyewuenyi covid-19 pandemic: a pandemic… 9 references adamu, adamu (2021) covid-19: fg constitutes a committee on harmonisation of school and examination calendar, jambulletin, vol. 2 no. 8, january 25, 2021, p.2 harrist, margaret (2020) in larry mullin, 2020, the who is hunting for the coronavirus‘s origins. here are the new details, national geographic science, november 6, 2020. (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/11/worldhealth-organization-china-search-covid-origins...). accessed october 9, 2020. mitch, wagner (2021) how an oracle team spotted ‗streamscam,‘ the biggest connected tv ad scam yet,oracle news connect, january 21, 2021. news agency of nigeria (2020)covid-19: niger govt orders closure of schools, tertiary institutions, pulse nigeria, december 17, 2020. okebukola, peter (2021) covid-19 affected over 90% of public school curriculum, jambulletin, vol.2, no. 10, february 8, 2021, p. 5. also in punch newspaper, friday 5, 2021. olanrewaju, apata (2021) finding one‘s feet in the face of adversity, jambulletin, vol. 2 no. 9, february 1, 2021, p.5. onyewuenyi, remy n. (1981) the role of railway development and the growth of export agriculture in nigeria: 1900-1950. m.a. thesis, department of geography, university of ottawa, canada. onyewuenyi, remy n. (1990)the evolution and spatial diffusion of informal sector activity in nigeria: 1900-1989. doctoral of philosophy thesis. department of geography, university of ottawa, canada. onyewuenyi, remy n. (2011) the effect of railway construction on the growth of export agriculture: the nigerian experience.madonna international journal of research, vol.4 no.1, pp. 1-26. onyewuenyi, remy n. (2015)how an educational institution can transform the spatial-economic landscape of a rural community: the federal polytechnic idah experience.madonna international journal of research, vol. 7 no. 2, pp. 1-12. onyewuenyi, remy n. (2020) the villagescape of my yesteryears. spiritan publications: onitsha, nigeria. prof.yemi osinbajo (2020) jambulletin, vol. 1 no. 98, november 16, 2020, p.2. simon, matt (2020) who will we be when this is all over? (https://www.wired.com/story/who-will-we-be-when-the-pandemic-isover/?utm_source=pocket&utm...) accessed december 30, 2020. wallin, bruce (2020) why some countries are opening back up to tourists during a pandemic,national geographic travel, november 30, 2020. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/11/world-health-organization-china-search https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/11/world-health-organization-china-search https://www.wired.com/story/who-will-we-be-when-the-pandemic-is-over/?utm_source=pocket&utm https://www.wired.com/story/who-will-we-be-when-the-pandemic-is-over/?utm_source=pocket&utm aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 résumée le mariage est fondamental et stratégique dans l'édification d'une nation, le mariage est l'unité de base de toute société. c'est alarmant dans la façon dont les mariages sont brises à cause de l'infidélité. les mariages harmonieux produisent des foyers sains, une société saine. le mariage harmonieux produit l'harmonie dans la société. ce travail a pour but d'examiner l'infidélité dans madame bovary de gustave flaubert et maman a un amant de calixthe beyala. pour effectuer l'étude, deux questions sont formulées : quelles sont les causes de l'infidélité et quelles en sont les conséquences pour les personnages principaux. l'analyse est faite celles de la provocation et de la conséquence. en appliquant cette méthode à deux romans où le thème de l'infidélité joue un rôle important, nous voudrions faciliter la quête sur les causes et les conséquences des relations extraconjugales. nous avons identifié la mélancolie, la stérilité, l'absence d'amour comme les causes de l'infidélité et l'infidélité comme un substitut pour le désir et de la passion, mais aussi comme un moyen de gagner de l'indépendance et des relations utiles. mots clés : infidélité, conséquence, relation conjugale, flaubert, abstract marriage is fundamental and strategic in nation building, it is the basic unit of any society. it is alarming in the way marriages are broken because of infidelity. healthy marriages produce healthy nation, healthy homes and healthy society. marriage is strategic in every nation and society building. it is alarming to note how marriages and homes are breaking because of infidelity. this work aims at examining infidelity in madame bovary of gustave flaubert. to conduct the study, two questions two questions are formulated: what are the causes of infidelity and what are the consequences for the main characters. the analysis is made those of provocation and consequence. by applying this method to the novel where the theme of infidelity plays an important role, we hoped to facilitate the quest on the causes and consequences of extramarital affairs. we have identified melancholy, lack of love as the causes of infidelity and infidelity as a substitute for desire and passion, but also as a way to gain independence and useful relationships. keywords: infidelity, consequence, conjugal relationship, flaubert 176 l'infidelite dans madame bovary de gustave flaubert: etude psychanalyse. joshua, precious chimee department of modern european languages nnamdi azikiwe university, awka & prof. theodara ukamaka onuko. department of modern european languages nnamdi azikiwe university, awka introduction on ne peut pas nier le fait que plusieurs mariages aujourd'hui font face à l'infidélité. l'infidélité est l'un de problèmes religieux et sociaux qui ont bouleversé notre siècle, la question d'infidélité reste une discours trait par des écrivains/écrivaines français ainsi que les africains. l'infidélité fait partie de ces notions difficiles à cerner. le pays, la culture, la religion, l'époque et l'âge sont autant de facteurs qui influencent le problème de l'infidélité, de même que son corollaire la fidélité. de plus, selon les gens, la dimension morale de l'infidélité est également interprétable. un esprit libertin ne voit pas l'infidélité comme un chrétien le verra. au xixème siècle en france, l'infidélité était sévèrement punie en particulier pour les femmes. selon gérard leleu, « l'infidélité des femmes a longtemps été sanctionnée par la peine de mort, y compris en france. les hommes n'ont quant à eux jamais été inquiétés (la compagnie des femmes). la religion chrétienne ne favorise non plus l'infidélité. l'ancien testament condamne beaucoup l'infidélité jusqu'à la peine de la mort pour les adultères. la loi de moïse dit que « si un homme commet un adultère avec une femme mariée, s'il commet un adultère avec la femme de son prochain, l'homme et la femme adultères sera punis à mort » (lévitique 20 :10) (sainte bible, s.i). mais le nouveau testament montre que l'infidélité ou l'adultère est un péché mais qui n'est pas mortel mais qui est plutôt pardonnable. jésus a dit à la femme adultère ; « vas-y et désormais ne pèche pas. » (jean 8 : 7). l'infidélité, c'est la trahison, une perfidie et un geste d'abandon de l'être aimé, elle détruit le lien de confiance que le couple avait bâti. . selon andré naouri, l'infidélité ou la rupture est due à une faute grave difficile à tolérer. (23). selon andré houel, l'infidélité est le résultat d'une mauvaise éducation, « une éducation qui ne prépare pas la fille aux futures obligations qu'elle allait affronter dans le mariage » (23). notre définition de l'infidélité s'applique à la situation où l'un des époux s'engage dans une relation sexuelle extraconjugale. nous nous intéressons donc à examiner les raisons et les conséquences de l'infidélité que nous étudierons dans deux œuvres littéraires. une telle analyse nécessite deux romans qui décrivent un mariage dans lequel l'un conjoint est infidèle. gustave flaubert et calixthe beyala font parties des auteurs qui traitent le sujet de l'infidélité dans leurs ouvrées. problematique premièrement, à partir du moment de la création, il est affirmé que dieu a créé un homme et une femme non pas un homme avec plusieurs femmes ou plusieurs amantes et vis à vis. en conséquence, cette idéologie nous montre qu'au commencement l'infidélité n'est pas dans le programme divin pour les couples. l'infidélité aujourd'hui est une nature humaine qui a grandement influencé le comportement des gens. dans cette perspective, la problématique de cette recherche est d'une part de vérifier l'hypothèse que l'infidélité n'égale pas la liberté justifiée par la société et certains écrivains (es). en outre, pour voir à quel point la société a mal interprété l'infidélité. d'autre part, il s'agit de déterminer si l'infidélité a vraiment donné la liberté ou paix aux couples. 177 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june questions de recherche 1. quelles sont les causes de l'infidélité ? 2. est-ce que c'est la même chose avec la liberté ? 3. est-ce que c'est possible qu'un partenaire reste fidèle? 4. l'infidélité, peut-elle créer ou amener la paix au foyer ? objectif de la recherche l'objectif de ce travail vise à démontrer que l'infidélité est un défi énorme, qui détruit les foyers, les relations, les mariages, les vies et la société dans son ensemble. elle n'égale pas la liberté. dans chaque foyer qu'elle entre, elle détruit les gens qui habitent dans cette maison, les maris, les femmes et les enfants. elle n'épargne personne. l'infidélité est mauvaise en sa nature et comment quelques aspects de la tradition, religion, culture, écrivains française et africaine favorise l'infidélité. la recherche montrera les causes et les conséquences de l'infidélité, aussi bien que les rôles des écrivains pour l'amélioration des relations entre des couples dans leurs foyers. biographie et les œuvres d'auteur c'est généralement une bonne pratique de recherche d'informer le public sur les auteurs que le chercheur étudie leurs travaux. cela signifie alors la nécessité d'éclairer leurs trames de données personnelles. cependant, dans le cas de gustave flaubert il est important de dégager les influences sur le romancier à partir des informations fournies à son sujet afin de faciliter une meilleure compréhension des romans du corpus. gustave flaubert et ses œuvres gustave flaubert naît à rouen, en france, le 12 décembre 1821, fils du chirurgien achille cléophas flaubert et d'anne justine caroline fleuriot, celle-ci, fille d'un médecin. son frère aîné, prénommé comme son père, était un médecin. contrairement à son frère, toujours célébré par ses parents, gustave flaubert était en fait considéré, d'après sartre, comme « l'idiot de la famille » (1149), était passionné par la fiction depuis son enfance. il voulait être comédien, pour faire rire les autres, et se consacra donc, selon sartre, au théâtre. tout cela construit l'écrivain qui débute officiellement sa carrière littéraire dans un parfum à sentir (1836), ouvre qui garde un fort couleur romantique à la manière de hugo, par exemple (faguet: 1928, p. 300). malgré la forte présence de la médecine dans son entourage (père, grand-père et frère aîné), l'écrivain décide de suivre un parcours juridique sans toutefois l'achever. un homme dévoué à son œuvre et à la littérature en général, devenu l'un des plus grands auteurs français. malgré son intelligence et son application, il refuse de finir ses études de droit, ce qui peut être interprété par son entourage comme incapacité ou caprice d'un rêveur. il est décrit comme un homme sceptique et stoïque mais sévère. particulièrement dans sa quête pour la beauté. dans, la bêtise, l'art et la vie (10) il est un homme qui « aurait choisi l'art contre la vie » 178 chimee & onuko l'infidelite dans madame bovary de gustave flaubert: etude psychanalyse. pour lui, on peut dire, l'écriture est un art du regard. flaubert cherche à se concentrer sur un autre aspect élémentaire pour lui, la sensation, le sentiment. il n'écrit pas seulement pour « bien écrire », il cherche à écrire pour sentir, pour mieux sentir et pour faire sentir. il se plonge résolu dans le romantisme, lit beaucoup de grands auteurs stylistes, comme hugo, chateaubriand, ou goethe. plus tard, il scrute le réalisme avec la même sévérité. il prend un peu de rousseau et des lumières, et il adore les classiques, la franchise et la précision de montesquieu et de voltaire. shakespeare et rabelais lui donnent des vues sur le grotesque et l'influence de cervantès se montre plus tard dans son œuvre avec la création d'un quichotte féminin, madame bovary, qui possède certaines qualités applicables à flaubert lui-même. d'après andré versaille, flaubert est « pourri de romantisme et fondamentalement lyrique ». (10) lyrisme « cancéreux », comme flaubert l'appelle, l'enveloppe si étroitement que sa tentative de l'exprimer cause le refus de ses confrères, maxime du camp et louis bouilhet, qui ils déclarent que le produit de son amour pour le lyrisme, la tentation de saint antoine (1848), il faut « jeter cela au feu et n'en jamais reparler ». (11) les sentiments de flaubert pour élisa schlésinger sont également devenus une source d'inspiration pour le roman l'éducation sentimentale (1869), incarnée dans le personnage principal de marie arnoux. c'est peut-être ici où flaubert décide de faire sa propre éducation sentimentale et finalement, guérir son romantisme et brûler ses illusions comme celles du personnage de frédéric. il fait le même et plus avec l'analyse de l'illusion romantique en créant sa protagoniste la plus connue, madame bovary. résumé de madame bovary. emma, est une fille d'un riche fermier. emma rouault épouse charles bovary, officier de santé et veuf récent d'une femme tyrannique. élevée dans un couvent, emma aspire à vivre dans le monde de rêve dont parlent les romans à l'eau de rose qu'elle y a lu. un bal au château de vaubyessard lui persuade qu'un tel monde existe, mais le décalage qu'elle découvre avec sa propre vie déclenche chez elle une maladie nerveuse. son mari décide alors de s'installer dans une autre bourgade, siège de comices agricoles renommées, yonville-l'abbaye. là, elle fait la connaissance des personnalités locales, homais, pharmacien progressiste et athée, le curé bournisien, léon dupuis, clerc de notaire, rodolphe boulanger, gentilhomme campagnard. la naissance d'une fille la distrait un peu, mais bientôt emma cède aux avances de rodolphe. elle veut s'enfuir avec son amant qui, lâche, l'abandonne; emma croit en mourir, traverse d'abord une crise de mysticisme, puis plus tard, au théâtre de rouen, revoit léon, revenu de paris. elle devient très vite sa maîtresse, lors d'une promenade dans un fiacre. installée dans sa liaison, emma bovary invente des mensonges pour revoir léon, et dépense des sommes importantes, qu'elle emprunte à un marchand trop complaisant, lheureux. un jour, celui-ci exige d'être remboursé, emma, par peur du jugement qui va être prononcé contre elle, tente d'emprunter auprès de léon, puis de rodolphe. 179 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june la méthode la psychanalyse freud trouve pour la première fois des exemples dans des personnages littéraires, qui serviront de base à ses futures théories psychanalytiques. littérature et psychanalyse sont donc liées, notamment en tant que méthodes d'interprétation. jean bellemin-noël donne une définition de la psychanalyse dans psychanalyse et littérature : « la psychanalyse (j'entends par là la doctrine freudienne) plutôt qu'une science est l'art de déchiffrer une vérité dans tous les secteurs énigmatiques de l'expérience humaine, telle que l'homme la vit, c'est-à-dire “parle” à un autre ou à lui-même (10) la psychanalyse est donc la science qui lit et interprète l'esprit humain comme si quelque chose se cachait dans l'être humain et dans la parole. d'autre part, l'interprétation littéraire essaie de déchiffrer ce qui est impliqué dans le texte par le texte lui-même ou par l'auteur .dans les deux cas, il s'agit de l'interprétation de ce qui est caché et refoulé. la psychanalyse et la littérature sont donc deux choses semblables : deux modes d'interprétation : « […] il ne faut pas perdre de vue que la vision du monde des belles-lettres et le repérage des effets de l'inconscient fonctionnent de la même façon : ce sont des espèces d'interprétation, des manières de lire, disons des lectures» (5). dès le début, la psychanalyse a été utilisée comme moyen d'interprétation de la littérature. puisque le texte littéraire est constitué de sous texte, d'inconscient et puis la psychanalyse est censée interpréter l'inconscient, nous pouvons appliquer la psychanalyse à la littérature pour extraire le sens des œuvres. c'est ce que bayard appelle « la psychanalyse appliquée à la littérature » : « la psychanalyse une fois mise en place dans ses grandes lignes, c'est elle qui guide l'ensemble du geste critique, en fournissant à la fois une réserve de concepts et de fantasmes, et des techniques d'interprétation. tel est le sens de ce qu'il est convenu d'appeler la “psychanalyse appliquée” […].cette relation consiste en une application, c'est-à-dire un transport de connaissance de la théorie vers l'œuvre […]. une théorie extérieure à l'œuvre est posée avant sa lecture – laquelle se situe dans l'orbite de cette théorie –, et c'est à sa lumière que l'œuvre est lue, et même appréhendée (34) la psychanalyse appliquée est donc un mode d'interprétation des œuvres littéraires. lorsque l'interprète applique la psychanalyse, il utilise le « freudisme comme un moyen d'investigation, comme un appareil optique perfectionné capable de rendre visible ce que le texte n'expose pas au premier regard »(203). en psychanalyse appliquée, il existe deux manières d'approcher le texte. tout d'abord, il y a la critique de texte qui prend en considération les « influences inconscientes que la vie de l'écrivain, événementielle et psychologique, a exercées sur son œuvre » (35). on s'intéresse donc au texte littéraire et à la vie de l'auteur. ensuite, nous avons la méthode qui tient compte de l'inconscient du texte sans s'intéresser à l'auteur. c'est lire le texte « hors de l'auteur » (173), le mettre horsjeu. cependant, comme le dit jean bellemin-noël, il ne s'agit pas d'oublier l'auteur ou de s'opposer à lui, car il reste finalement toujours impliqué (174). c'est ce qu'il appelle la « psychanalyse textuelle ». (175) par conséquent, nous appliquons la psychanalyse à la littérature comme méthode d'interprétation. dans cette étude, nous adoptons donc la 180 chimee & onuko l'infidelite dans madame bovary de gustave flaubert: etude psychanalyse. méthode de la psychanalyse appliquée à la littérature, mais aussi la psychanalyse textuelle. l'infidélité dans le corpus et les causes l'infidélité dans la société quel que soit occidentale ou africaine est un cuisant jusqu'à nos jours, continue à traiter ce thèmes sous différent variantes. nous allons essayer à saisir quelques manifestations de l'infidélité dans notre roman pour bien apporter bon jugement pour lesquels le personnage a entrepris ce chemin. la mélancolie du point de vue psychologique, la mélancolie est définie comme un «un état pathologique caractérisé par une dépression physique et morale complète, une profonde tristesse, un pessimisme généralisé, accompagné d'idées délirantes d'autoaccusation et de suicide définition selon du cnrtl (centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales) on note que emma possède pratiquement toutes les caractéristiques de la mélancolie telle que définie en psychologie. dans les lignes suivantes, nous illustrons deux de ces aspects : la profonde tristesse et le pessimisme général. dans le roman de flaubert, nous avons emma une rêveuse triste rêveuse attendant que quelque chose apparaisse dans sa vie : « au fond de son âme, cependant, elle attendait un événement. […] mais, chaque matin, à son réveil, elle l'espérait pour la journée […] et elle […] s'étonnait qu'il ne vînt pas ; puis, au coucher du soleil, toujours plus triste, désirait être au lendemain ».(124) nous voyons également une scène où emma et son premier amant rodolphe ont une conversation. flaubert dit qu'elle lui racontait ses tristesses : « la journée du lendemain se passa dans une douceur nouvelle. ils se firent des serments. elle lui raconta ses tristesses» (252) cette profonde tristesse crée un profond pessimisme chez ces femmes. en fait, emma est si triste et mauvaise dans sa vie qu'elle ne peut pas voir ce qui est bon dans sa vie. cela est particulièrement évident dans l'apparence de son mari. contrairement aux habitants d'yonville, emma ne voit rien de beau en charles. il ne voit que du ridicule en lui. flaubert le décrit plusieurs fois à travers les yeux d'emma comme un pauvre homme dont il ne peut plus supporter les petits gestes : « “quel pauvre homme ! quel pauvre homme ! ” disait-elle tout bas, en se mordant les lèvres. […] il prenait avec l'âge, des allures épaisses ; il coupait, au dessert, le bouchon des bouteilles vides ; il se passait après manger, la langue sur les dents ; il faisait, en avalant sa soupe, un gloussement à chaque gorgée, et, comme il commençait d'engraisser, ses yeux, déjà petits, semblaient remonter vers les tempes par la bouffissure de ses pommettes(124). intéressons-nous à notre héroïne du 19e siècle, dans madame bovary, lorsqu'emma est enceinte, elle dit qu'elle souhaiterait avoir un fils, car un homme a plus de liberté qu'une femme ; elle sait que si elle a une fille, cette dernière sera retenue par les lois et les convenances qui l'empêcheront de bouger : « elle souhaitait un fils ; il serait fort et brun, elle l'appellerait georges ; et cette idée d'avoir pour enfant un mâle était comme la revanche en espoir de toutes ses impuissances 181 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june passées. un homme, au moins, est libre ; il peut parcourir les passions et les pays, traverser les obstacles, mordre aux bonheurs les plus lointains. mais une femme est empêchée continuellement. inerte et flexible à la fois, elle a contre elle les mollesses de la chair avec les dépendances de la loi. sa volonté, comme le voile de son chapeau retenu par un cordon, palpite à tous les vents ; il y a toujours quelque désir qui entraîne, quelque convenance qui retient ». (159) après avoir donné naissance à une fille, emma a perdu connaissance. cela montre combien madame bovary se voit sans valeur, sans liberté, sans estime de soi à cause de son genre. son moi, je suis réduit, car elle sait qu'elle est une femme qui doit dépendre de lois. l'influence de romans romantiques après avoir lu des romans d'amour et de chevalerie, emma bovary se constitue un monde romantique et romanesque dans lequel elle voudrait vivre. ces histoires imaginaires d'amour et de passion deviennent pour elle son objet idéal, tout comme don quichotte avec les romans de chevalerie. ce qu'emma veut vivre, c'est une histoire d'amour et ressentir ce que les romans lui ont fait ressentir, c'est-à-dire des émotions : « et emma cherchait à savoir ce que l'on entendait au juste dans la vie par les mots de félicité, de passion et d'ivresse, qui lui avaient paru si beaux dans les livres(87) après avoir reçu une éducation pour se préparer au mariage, emma était convaincue que lorsqu'elle se marierait, elle connaîtrait l'amour décrit dans ces livres. au début de son mariage avec charles, elle devient le personnage principal de son roman d'amour. au bout d'un moment, cependant, emma remarque une déception dans son mariage. non seulement elle ne ressent plus ces passions, mais elle ne ressent également aucun lien avec charles.: « mais, à mesure que se serrait davantage l'intimité de leur vie, un détachement intérieur se faisait qui la déliait de lui » (97). la pression sociale et les attentes de la société madame bovary, le célèbre roman de gustave flaubert, explore les multiples causes de l'adultère commis par l'héroïne emma bovary. parmi ces causes, la pression sociale et les attentes de la société jouent un rôle crucial. la pression qui vient de la société a causé beaucoup de femmes perdre leurs foyer, précisément la société là où nous vivons les médiaux sociaux n'épargne pas les couples. certaines après avoir vu les collègues afficher leur vie à l'internet perdre la paix désirant à vivre la vie des autres comme emma bovary : l'air du bal était lourd ; les lampes pâlissaient. on refluait dans la salle de billard. (108) ce fut donc une occupation pour emma que le souvenir de ce bal. toutes les fois que revenait le 117 mercredi, elle se disait en s'éveillant : « ah ! il y a huit jours... il y a quinze jours..., il y a trois semaines, j'y étais ! » et peu à peu, les physionomies se confondirent dans sa mémoire, elle oublia l'air des contredanses, elle ne vit plus si nettement les livrées et les appartements ; quelques détails s'en allèrent, mais le regret lui resta. (118) 182 chimee & onuko l'infidelite dans madame bovary de gustave flaubert: etude psychanalyse. emma est désespérée pour les expériences romantiques et passionnées qu'elle croit être la norme pour les femmes de son statut social. quand emma rencontre le charmant aristocrate rodolphe, elle voit en lui l'incarnation de ses rêves. séduit par son charme et sa ruse, il l'épouse, persuadé qu'elle réalisera enfin ses fantasmes de passion et d'amour. la pression sociale affecte également l'infidélité d'emma avec léon, un avocat. léon représente pour emma l'opportunité de vivre une vie raffinée et sophistiquée à paris, loin de la monotonie de la vie provinciale. emma est attirée par les lumières de la ville et les plaisirs de la vie citadine et cède à la tentation de l'infidélité avec léon. les conséquences de l'adultère de madame bovary l'adultère a de graves conséquences pour tous les membres de la famille. pour le conjoint trompé, cela peut entraîner une perte de confiance, une détresse émotionnelle et une éventuelle rupture du mariage. pour les enfants, cela peut causer des traumatismes émotionnels et des problèmes de comportement. en outre, l'infidélité peut entraîner des problèmes juridiques tels que le divorce et la garde des enfants, ainsi que des conséquences sociales telles que la stigmatisation et la perte de réputation. premièrement, l'adultère de madame bovary a des conséquences dévastatrices sur sa propre vie. l'adultère mène à la destruction de la famille et de l'amour le personnage principal du roman, emma bovary, est mariée à charles bovary, médecin de campagne. emma est fatiguée de sa vie conjugale et rêve de romance et de passion. elle rencontre alors et entame une relation avec rodolphe boulanger, un riche propriétaire terrien. l'infidélité d'emma avec rodolphe est la première étape de sa descente vers la destruction. en effet, emma est toujours mécontente de sa vie et de son mariage avec charles, et elle commence à utiliser l'argent pour satisfaire ses désirs matériels. elle accueille également un amant, un jeune avocat, léon, pour combler le vide qu'elle ressent. l'infidélité d'emma a des conséquences dramatiques sur sa vie et sa famille. décès: dans madame bovary, la mort d'emma est directement liée à son infidélité et aux conséquences de ce mariage. tout au long du roman, emma est présentée comme insatisfaite de sa vie et désespérée d'échapper à la monotonie de son existence. le mariage avec charles est décevant et ennuyeux, et elle aspire à une vie plus excitante et romantique. cette recherche de passion l'amène à entamer une liaison avec rodolphe, un riche propriétaire terrien. emma se sent vivante et nécessaire dans les bras de rodolphe, mais la relation se termine mal lorsque rodolphe rompt avec elle. conclusion tout au long de ce travail, nous avons essayé de comprendre d'où venait l'infidélité, dans deuil et mélancolie, freud explique qu'une personne devient mélancolique après la perte d'objet aimé ou un être cher. c'est le cas de madame bovary. pour emma bovary, cet objet était la passion amoureuse dans les romans à l'eau de rose et la vie de noblesse et de bourgeoise. l'infidélité confronte le bonheur conjugale, il fait des couples à souffrir, elle n'égale pas la liberté et n'apporte pas la paix. elle apporte les querelles dans le foyer, les dettes et même la mort précoce. 183 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june nous remarquons donc, et nous pouvons conclure avec cela, que le mariage a besoin de travail acharné. c'est un devoir de l'homme et de la femme d'assurer que leur mariage fonctionne. evitez tout ce qui pourrait briser leur union. les femmes devraient aider leurs maris, lorsqu'elles se rendent compte que leur mari ne convient pas au modèle du mari tel qu'elles l'ont rêvé cas de madame bovary. ce roman semble suivre le chemin de libération du couple, les tactiques utilisées pour empêcher les gens de s'ennuyer est l'infidélité ou liaison extraconjugale. le moyen utilisé pour délivrer la femme de son ennui est l'infidélité. ce moyen n'a pas du tout apporté la paix dans la vie d'emma car elle a fini par remarquer que ses amants ne l'aimaient pas. on ne peut pas se justifier ou justifier une raison quelconque d'être infidèle. l'infidélité reste infidélité, peu importe la culture, peu importe la religion. œuvre citées flaubert, g. et andré versailles, la bêtise, l'art et la vie : en écrivant madame bovary, paris : complexe, 1991. flaubert, g. madame bovary. libraire générale française, paris. 2006. françoise, mayeur, l'éducation des filles en france au xixe siècle, paris, hachette, 1979. freud, sigmund. trois essais sur la théorie sexuelle, paris, éditions gallimard. 1987. gustave, flaubert. madame bovary : mœurs de province, éd. séginger gisèle, paris, flammarion, coll. gf, 2018. guy, caplat, louis-henri, parias histoire générale de l'enseignement et de l'éducation en france. t. ii paris, nouvelle librairie de france, 1981. houel, a. les contradictions de l'adultère féminin. le journal des psychologues, cairn.info. 2007. houel, annik. l'adultère au féminin et son roman, paris, édition armand colin. 1999. lafayette madame de la princesse de clèves. gallimard, coll. folio, paris. 1999. leleu. g. la fidélité et le couple, flammarion, paris. 2004. jean, bellemin-noël, psychanalyse et littérature, 2e éd., paris, puf, coll. quadrige. essais, débats, 2012. judy armstrong. the novel of adultery (london [uk]: the macmillan press ltd 1976. m é l a n c o l i e » , d é f i n i t i o n s e l o n l e c n r t l , u r l : https://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/mélancolie, page consultée le 22 2022 184 chimee & onuko l'infidelite dans madame bovary de gustave flaubert: etude psychanalyse. aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 abstract the desire for procreation by some couples is often caused by cultural value systems, familial expectations, and cravings for human immortality. procreation becomes problematic when barrenness and infertility impede its accomplishment. however, scientific research into this problem triggered breakthroughs in medical technologies and methods of assisting affected couples in the reproductive process, thereby, birthing “assisted reproduction”. despite the appreciable success recorded in the application of these legally viable technologies such as artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, and surrogacy, some affected people tend to resort to an illicit pathway to parenthood when confronted with infertility. this pathway, mainly “baby factory”, is considered illegal and an avenue for perpetrating social ills like child abuse, infant trafficking, rape, and sexual violence. what could possibly inform the preference of baby factory to the effective, legal, and scientific method of assisted reproduction? employing the method of reductive analysis, this paper found out that victims of infertility are obstructed from seeking solutions through assisted reproduction due to their belief systems and ignorance. the paper argues that these victims' orientation can be aligned with assisted reproduction through seasoned philosophical arguments, and as well, dissuade them from patronizing baby factories. consequently, the paper employs the fletcherian, utilitarian, and kantian arguments to showcase how assisted reproduction is a viable alternative to baby factory patronage. the paper recommends that enough awareness should be created on the immorality of baby factory patronage and, the moral and therapeutic attractions of assisted reproduction. keywords: assisted reproduction, baby factory, human procreation, infertility. introduction the quest for procreation remains one of the fundamental biological cravings of the human person based largely on familial, fulfilment, and cultural concerns (roupa et al, 2009). people may have various reasons for participating in reproduction and making babies, but traditionally, many families seek to raise children that will perpetuate the family name or aid the attainment of immortality (sharma, saxena & singh, 2018). assisted reproduction as an ethical alternative to illicit pathways to parenthood. paschal anaeke department of philosophy, university of lagos, lagos, nigeria. & fatai asodun, ph.d department of philosophy, university of lagos, lagos, nigeria. 166 indeed, being a natural phenomenon and an instrument of the continuity of human existence, many individuals have the natural inclination to participate in procreation. problems arise when this desire is not met due to some reproductive impediments that are either socially induced or associated with medical challenges. these impediments act as factors that trigger infertility. assisted reproduction is an attempt to overcome these impediments. although in the past, couples simply accept their fate of infertility as given due to lack of knowledge, the situation is different today as development in medical sciences is fetching solutions through assisted reproduction (roupa et al, 2009). some cultures have already developed traditional methods of assisted reproduction to overcome this challenge (nwaezeapu, 2011). in the scientific arena, assisted reproductive technologies are developed to serve as an alternative when the natural method of reproduction fails. however, certain belief systems consider assisted reproduction as an affront to parenthood and procreation. for instance, surrogacy is reasoned to be an absurd condition where multiple females can productively and reasonably claim motherhood to the same baby at the same time. furthermore, surrogacy exemplifies reproductive prostitution (demarco, 1991). practically, the mental conditioning which holds that assisted reproduction is morally reprehensible makes the childless couples who fondly desire to have babies whether for personal joy, familial, or cultural considerations often resort to clandestine and illicit pathways to parenthood. such dark routes include patronage of baby factories, child theft, and baby selling. this paper seeks to dismantle the ingrained belief that condemns assisted reproduction. we argue that to curb the attendant evil associated with illicit pathways to making babies, wider public awareness of assisted reproduction is essential. more so, public policy intervention that can make access to assisted reproductive technologies available and affordable will go a long way to serve as a panacea to closing down baby factories, discouraging baby theft and sales, and also enhancing documented births with medical history. the paper is divided into four sections. section one takes a critical look at the causes and effects of infertility while section two reveals the menace of illicit baby business and factory patronage as a common solution to the problem of childlessness. in section three, the paper introduces three critical arguments in support of assisted reproduction as a viable option for solving the problem of childlessness. in section four, the paper advances some recommendations on how to dissuade our mind-set from illicit baby business and factory patronage. the causes and effects of infertility any discourse on assisted conception presupposes a condition of infertility. basically, infertility is understood as the inability to achieve pregnancy after about twelve months of sexual intercourse properly timed and done without protection (who, 2022). it remains one of the existential problems of humanity as it obstructs the channel of life creation. 167 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june infertility is considered a common and global issue since it is affecting a high proportion of couples worldwide (roupa et al, 2009; mustafa, sharifa, janan, illzam & aliya, 2019). in nigeria, for instance, about 10% 30% of couples are affected by this problem (chimbatata & malimba, 2016). the factors behind the experience of infertility could be social or medical-related. social factors are human activities and decisions that induce infertility. in this regard, aitken (2022) draws attention to how women enlightenment belittles procreation as a crucial factor behind the continuity of human existence. some women for instance consider procreation as a barrier to their professional career growth and hence engage in the usage of pregnancy preventive drugs whose side effect triggers infertility. the men equally are not helping matters as their lifestyles encourage health challenges that impede reproductive competence. illicit drugs and excessive alcohol intake by such men sometimes a prompt reduction in the quality of their semen thereby leading to infertility. sexually transmitted diseases caused by multi-partner sexual patronage have been linked with defective sperm quality among men. medical reasons are also ascribed to infertility. as a case in point, infertility in women is traced to the problem of fallopian tubes, disorders of the menstrual cycle, problems in the uterus, sexual disorders, ovarian failure (roupa et al, 2009, p. 86), age-related factors, pelvic inflammatory diseases, and even age-propelled factor (mustafa et al, 2019, p. 29). male infertility on its own can be ascribed to medical disorders like low-level testosterone, genetic disorders, testicular cancer, and perhaps premature ejaculation. while infertility blocks the way for human continuity (mbiti, 1975), procreation is by common consent, understood as a sure way to human immortality as new humans come into being to take the place of the old (meilaender, 2013). the inability to procreate is thus viewed as an aberration since it hinders the process of immortality (sharma, et al, 2018). b. bujo's remark corroborates the foregoing by asserting that offspring occupy the space between the living and the living dead (ancestors) as well as remaining the hope of family continuity (bujo, 2003). infertility is quite devastating in developing countries. besides blocking family continuity therein, it paves way for social dislocation, family disintegration, stigmatization, and social ostracism (daar & marelli, 2002). the emotional turmoil, usually underplayed by the medicalization of infertility, is even more worrisome (mustafa et al, 2019). infertile couples are reported to experience distress, psychological trauma, sexual dysfunction ascribed to anxiety, pressure-induced marital discord, and so on (begum, 2008; mustafa et al, 2019). indeed, the pains of childlessness coupled with the familial and cultural perception of infertility make discourse on assisted reproduction a pressing issue. assisted reproduction as a viable option for childlessness the term “assisted reproduction” can be used in two senses, namely, the medical sense and the moral sense. in its medical sense, assisted reproduction is a non-coital 168 anaeke & asodun assisted reproduction as an ethical alternative ... reproductive process meant to aid reproduction where the natural process fails. it is thus an alternative reproductive process involving the use of different medical technologies to facilitate childbirth. such technologies include in vitro fertilization (ivf), surrogacy, artificial insemination, intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection, egg and sperm donation, gamete intra-fallopian transfer (gift), genetic enhancement, and many other processes (fadare & adeniyi, 2015; nagera, 2016). interestingly, the application of these technologies is guided by appropriate regulatory institutions and frameworks especially in developed countries (bamgbopa, okonta, ajayi, ogbeche, igbokwe & onwuzurigbo, 2018), thus giving the practice some legal support and legitimacy. in its moral sense, assisted reproduction is a process of rendering reproductive assistance, aid, or support to couples who could not have babies through the natural process. by implication, it involves a third party who is to render this assistance with the help of reproductive technology. “assistance” as used here is interpreted to mean moral favour or duty to help the needy. some individuals render such assistance by donating sperm or egg to infertile couples at no cost. some non-governmental organisations or groups even operate health institutions where assisted reproductive operations are carried out. according to basterra (1994), prior to the advent of assisted reproductive technologies, childless couples had to adopt a child or accept barren love as their fate. the author further remarks that infertile couples within some cultures resort to spiritual solutions. however, he delightfully notes that with the revolutions in reproductive technologies, the hope and dream of childless couples having children of their own is becoming a reality. development of technics in the field of assisted reproduction simply provides opportunities for solving the problem of infertility (sharma et al, 2018), albeit with admirable success (najera, 2016). as clearly depicted in the moral sense, assisted reproduction involves a third party intervention in the reproductive process where, traditionally, an intra-couple affair is taken for granted. this third party involvement is chiefly the ground for moral ripples surrounding its acceptance. appalled by the level of proliferation of reproductive technologies, donald de marco avers that “by initiating life apart from the embrace of husband and wife leads ultimately to so weakened a notion of parenthood.” (1991, p. 22). he describes ar as an affront to parenthood and procreation. this position also reflects the stance of the catholic church concerning artificial reproduction (magisterium, 1987). such perspectives raise ethical objections to third party assisted reproduction and other extensions of the practice that are anchored on the manipulation of sperm and eggs. the catholic church considers sperm and eggs as potential lives such that spillage of same clearly amounts to the destruction of potential life (magisterium, 1987). some other strong criticisms are levied against assisted reproduction. however, most of these criticisms are cantered on the methods and technologies of assisted reproduction and not the act itself. the use of preimplantation genetic analysis as an instrument for the selection of offspring, for instance, attracts divergent opinions and is claimed to be an attempt to usurp god's role in reproduction. there is a moral issue of confidentiality and whether gametes and embryo donors be compensated or not. also of moral concern is the 169 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june issue of financial inducement and gratification ascribed to surrogacy (bamgbopa, et al, 2018). within this climate of understanding, the desire to seek assisted reproduction as a way out of childlessness is confronted with stiff ethical objections. assisted reproduction is argued to be akin to playing god, artificial interfering with the origin of life, and absurdly subjecting reproduction to technological influence. such a situation makes candidates for assisted conception torn between choosing to follow the dictates of their hearts to seek assisted reproduction and maintaining fidelity to the tenets of popular religious views which raise objections against it (cooper & glazer, 1994). for some childless couples, resorting to illicit pathways to parenthood becomes the inevitable “secret” option. this latter clandestine choice invariably exacerbates the existence of “black market” reproductive practices in the form of baby selling, baby theft, and patronage of illicit “baby factories”. this new practice raises deeper moral questions. the menace of illicit pathways to parenthood the desire to have children is heightened by people's cultural attitude to childlessness. such traditional considerations make infertility perceived as a natural calamity that must be conquered by any means possible. the effort to make people reject illicit routes to parenthood must take cognizance of and address such cultural and societal factors that drive people into it. daar and marelli (2002) note that because motherhood is often closely connected to womanhood, barren women are commonly regarded as inauthentic women. driven by the fear of social stigma some victims of infertility find it difficult to embrace child adoption; they would rather engage the services of baby racketeers to get fulfilment. philip obaji (2020) makes a shocking revelation about the spate of sexual exploitation surrounding black market reproductive practices. according to obaji, operators of baby factories and their abettors go as far as luring young girls displaced by terrorists in northern nigeria into their baby factories under the guise of securing employment for them. such vulnerable girls are sexually exploited and made to bear children which will be sold to ready buyers who are mostly barren couples and local or international adopters (huntley, 2014). the girls are conveniently camped in disguised maternity homes, welfare homes, and orphanages where these inhuman acts are carried out. identifying different faces of baby factory, christiana ele (2016) draws attention to its menace in nigeria. “at one activity, it has the face of commercial surrogacy, where wombs are rented to help childless couples get babies which they could call their own. at another, it breeds children as new wares for sale for the purpose of trafficking, monetary gains, illegal adoption, black magic and rituals. yet at another instance, it is a hiding place for unwanted pregnancies in order to protect the expectant mothers from social ridicule, stigma and psychological trauma” (p. 12). in all three faces, baby factory is a cover-up for immorality. it is an avenue for indulging in women exploitation (nwaka & akachi, 2019), infant trafficking (owolabi, 2017) child abuse, physical, psychological, and sexual violence. 170 anaeke & asodun assisted reproduction as an ethical alternative ... appalled by such condemnable and illicit approaches to parentage, this paper upholds that black market reproductive practice denies the victim children certain fundamental rights such as the right to identity of origin. it also commodifies children, and demeans parenthood and procreation among other moral ills. to dissuade patrons from this vice and re-channel their orientation towards assisted reproduction as a reasonable and ethical alternative of actualising their desires, we advance three arguments on the viability of assisted reproduction. three philosophical arguments in support of assisted reproduction fletcherian endorsement of assisted reproduction. reflecting on the agony of childlessness, joseph fletcher outlines four options available for the victims of this existential condition: (1) they may submit to a life of barren love, a so-called natural calamity over which they have no right to exert any control or adopt any means to overcome it; (2) they may outwit the frustration by resorting to illicit ( i.e., extra-marital conception by adultery); (3) they may achieve partial compensation through the adoption of someone else's baby; (4) they may turn to medical care for artificial insemination…( 1969, p.102). the first option could lead to frustration and psychological trauma. the second option is flawed by its immoral implications and complications for the born child. the third is reasonable if the adoption is legally implemented, but may not be fully gratifying to victims of infertility. the fourth is quite exciting since the baby is biologically linked to the parent. indeed, fletcher's fourth option represents the advancement in reproductive technologies such as in vitro fertilization, therapeutic insemination, and surrogacy. fletcher is writing prior to the revolutions in biotechnologies. in his spectacular book, morals and medicine (1969), fletcher embarks on a quest to present assisted reproduction as a welcome alternative to natural conception. fletcher's disposition is not surprising given his ethical theory of situationism. accordingly, no action is intrinsically good or bad, it is the situation in which the action is performed that is the determining factor. thus, an action, considered to be good in one situation, might turn out to be bad in another situation. where victims of barrenness are frustrated, their situation can warrant them finding succour in artificial insemination. the question now is whether baby theft and patronage of baby factory are equally justifiable on the ground of situationism. fletcher's application of the concept of “love” to situationism helps in resolving this dilemma. fletcher (1969) avers that love is the only absolute norm on which situationism is anchored. thus, acting for love in all situations whether good or bad is binding on everyone. he also adds that we cannot claim to love and be unjust at the same time. to love someone requires that we must not be unjust to that person. the choice of artificial insemination by victims of barrenness is argued here to be justified by these victims' love for humanity and its continuous existence. this is not applicable to baby factory phenomenon where all sorts of injustice like child theft, child abuse, and rape are perpetrated against humanity. 171 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june the utilitarian justification of assisted reproduction reproduction is not only considered as one of the positive consequences of and the anticipated end of marriage, it is also viewed as a source of married couple's happiness and fulfilment. utilitarianism as a philosophical doctrine advocates that humans should engage in actions that will promote their happiness and refrain from those that will lead to pain. pain and pleasure are two moral sovereign masters that naturally govern human behavioural dispositions. however, humans are morally inclined to pleasure-giving actions (bentham, 2018). as earlier discussed, infertility and barrenness are painful occurrences among married couples, hence assisted reproduction will be welcomed as the instrument of fulfilment and pleasure. one of the cardinal features of utilitarianism is that it considers actions to be morally justifiable in terms of the proportion of happiness they promote in everyone concerned or the greatest number of people possible. the quest for human continuity through reproduction (meilaender, 2013; degrazia, 2012) may end up being disrupted by bareness and infertility which subsequently lead to human pain and anxiety. on this count assisted reproduction will be a source of happiness for humanity by offering aid for the sustenance of human desire for procreation. in african communities, procreation is a source of joy not just to the married couple but the entire members of the community. similarly, childlessness by any couple is a source of concern and sadness to every member. assisted reproduction is thus viewed as a utility for community happiness. indeed, the argument may be advanced that child theft and baby factory may also yield similar pleasure and happiness since the objective is for couples to have a baby. if this argument is farfetched the utilitarian argument will appear self-defeating. one of the progenitors of the utilitarian theory, john stuart mill, clears the air on this issue. he points out that utilitarianism is not concerned with the agent's happiness alone but with everyone concerned. he advises that doers of action should be considerate of others' happiness in whatever they do (miller, 2010). couples that engage in child theft and baby factory are inadvertently promoting pain through their action. note that parents whose children are stolen are already agonizing over their loss. one may be quick to ask the question of whether assisted reproduction in itself promotes any form of pain to anyone whatsoever. the difficulty in offering any pain-related argument against assisted reproduction is in fact the strength of offering it as a utilitarian solution to childlessness and barrenness. at this point, we want to reiterate that child theft and baby factory phenomena are in themselves immoral. they are the source of pain for those affected. besides, we must not misconstrue child theft and baby factory syndrome as child adoption. the latter is achieved through moral and legal means while the former is participation in morally reprehensible deeds. the kantian justification of assisted reproduction although the utilitarian argument in support of assisted reproduction believes that, anyone who benefits from procreative assistance in order to conquer the pains of barrenness and infertility will be happy, the emerging question is whether such assistance can be rendered as a universal moral action. patrons of baby factories may for instance see 172 anaeke & asodun assisted reproduction as an ethical alternative ... baby-buying as an immediate solution to their childless agony, but will they be willing to justify the patronage of such factories as a universally acceptable moral solution to childlessness? immanuel kant's moral theory clarifies this matter with his principle of universalization. accordingly, in any moral situation, a moral agent can justify any action he intends to take once he considers such action desirable if everyone in a similar situation performs the same action (wood, 1999). will the moral agent be ready to will the action to become a universally acceptable action? can we for instance will that the setting up and the patronage of baby factories become universally acceptable action? definitely not since these two actions are inherently morally unacceptable. however, this will not suffice for assisted reproduction. we can easily will assisted reproduction to become a universally desirable action without getting entangled with any moral dilemma or contradiction. one noble attraction of assisted reproduction is that moral agents can morally justify their participation in it as a call to duty for the promotion of human continuity. following the kantian argument that an action has moral worth if it is performed for the sake of duty, the exploration of assisted reproduction, after a long futile application of natural efforts to end barrenness and infertility, may be reinforced by the will to satisfy the duty to ensure human immortality. assisted reproduction is thus seen as a goodwill exercise for promoting human continual existence. a culture that is desirous of promoting human continuity but denigrates assisted reproduction is unquestionably engaging in selfcontradiction. recommendations. following our discussion on the need to reject baby factory and choose assisted reproduction in overcoming the problem of infertility and barrenness, we recommend the following; i. assisted reproduction should be celebrated and embraced by everyone as a landmark achievement in human medical history and practice. ii. researchers in modern medicine should be encouraged to deepen the research in assisted reproduction, hence government and concerned stakeholders should invest in this direction. iii. government should do more in clamping down on baby factories and putting in place proper legislation that will discourage their operation. iv. there is an urgent need to address people's negative reactions to and treatment of victims of infertility and barrenness. similarly, cultural disdain for these victims needs urgent revision given the current reality. v. vigorous public sensitisation should be carried out by the government on the critical benefits of assisted reproduction and the need to shun baby factories. vi. philosophers should not cease in their effort to cast a critical light on both assisted reproduction and baby factories. conclusion in different parts of the world, victims of infertility and barrenness have been experiencing different forms of mental torture due to stigmatization and feeling of human incompleteness. nevertheless, it is inhumane to engage in baby trading in order to solve 173 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june the problem. the paper has reflected on such a choice and condemned it on moral grounds. indeed, the breakthrough in medical research on assisted reproduction has brought so much joy to many. affected couples now have arrays of assisted reproductive technologies to choose from depending on their dispositions. the concern of the paper is the issue of proper sensitisation and orientation of the public on this subject hence its philosophical drive to justify assisted reproduction. references aitken, j. (2022). “the changing tide of human fertility”. human reproduction. 37(4), pp. 629-638. bamgbopa, k., okonta, p., ajayi, r, ogbeche, r., igbokwe, c. & onwuzurigbo, k. (2018). “public perceptions on ethics in the practice of assisted reproductive technologies in nigeria”. global representative health. 2018, pp. 1-6. basterra, f.j.e. (1994). bioethics. middlegrean: st. pauls. begum, m.r. (2008). “assisted reproductive technology: techniques and limitations“. journal of bangladesh college of physicians and surgeons. 26(3), pp. 135-141. bentham, j. (2018). introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. econlib books. bujo, b. (2003). foundations of an african ethic. nairobi: pauline publications. chimbatata, nbw, malimba, c. (2016). “infertility in sub-saharan africa, a woman's issue for how long? a qualitative review of literature”. open journal of social sciences. 4(8), pp.96-102. cooper, s.l. & glazer, e.s. (1994). beyond infertility. the new paths to parenthood. new york: lexington book. daar, as & marelli, z. (2002). “infertility and social suffering: the case of art in developing countries” in vayenna e, rowe pj, griffin pd (eds.) current practices and controversies in assisted reproduction. report of a meeting on medical, ethical and social aspects of assisted reproduction. geneva: who library. pp. 15-21. available at: www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/ infertility/9241590300/en/. assessed 14/04/2021. de grazia, d. (2012) creation ethics. reproduction genetics and quality of life. new york: oxford u.p. de marco, d. (1991). biotechnology and the assault on parenthood. san francisco, ignatius press. ele, c. (2016). “the proliferation of baby factories in nigeria: an ethical perspective”. journal of arts, management and social sciences. 1(2), pp. 10-20. fadare, j.o. & adeniyi, a.a. (2015). “ethical issues in newer assisted reproductive technologies: a view from nigeria”. nigerian journal of clinical practice. supplement 1, pp. 57-61. fletcher, j. (1969). morals and medicine; the moral problems of the patient's right to know the truth, contraception, artificial insemination, sterilization, theuthanasia, (5 ed.) princeton: beacon press huntley, s. (2013). “the phenomenon of 'baby factories' in nigeria as a new trend in 174 anaeke & asodun assisted reproduction as an ethical alternative ... 175 human trafficking”. icd international crimes database. pp. 1-23. magisterium of the catholic church. (1987). “instruction on respect for human life in its origin and on the dignity of procreation (donum vitae)”: replies to certain q u e s t i o n s o f t h e d a y . va t i c a n c i t y . a v a i l a b l e a t https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_c faith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html. accessed: 25/09/2021. mbiti, j., (1975). african religions and philosophy, oxford: heinemann books meilaender, g. (2013). should we live forever? the ethical ambiguities of aging. cambridge: w.m.b. eerdmans publishing co. miller, d. (2010). j.s. mill moral, social and political thought. cambridge: cup. mustafa, m., sharifa, a.m., janan, h., illzam, e.m., & aliya, s. (2019). “male and female infertility: causes and management”. iosr journal of dental and medical sciences. 18(9), pp. 27-32. nagera, o. (2016). “ethical concerns for assisted reproduction technologies”. dialogue and nexus. 3, pp. 1-7. nwaezeapu, p. (2011). bioethics: childlessness and artificial reproduction!? phoenix books. nwaka, j.c. & odoemene, a. (2019). “baby factories: exploitation of women in southern nigeria”. dignity: a journal of analysis of exploitation and violence. 4(2), pp.1-15. obaji, p. (2020). “survivors of nigeria baby factories share their stories”. available at: www.aljazeera.com/features/2020/5/3/survivors-nigeria-baby-factories-sharetheir-stories. owolabi, e.f. (2017). “towards the curtailment of baby factory syndrome in nigeria”. kiu journal of humanities, 2(1), pp. 267-276. roupa, z., polikandrioti, m., sotivopoulou, p., faros, e., koulouri, a., wosniak, g., & gourni, m. (2009). “causes of infertility in women at reproductive age”. health science journal. 3(2), pp. 80-87. sharma, r.s., saxena, r. & singh, r. (2018). “infertility & assisted reproduction: a historical & modern scientific perspective”. indian j. med res. 148 (supplement), pp. 10-14. wood, a. (1999). kant's ethical thought. new york: cambridge university press. world health organization. (2023). “infertility”. fact sheets. who.int. assessed 06/04/2023. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 75 abstract the prevailing political, economic and social cultural situations in nigeria currently have made the re-evaluation of the role of the nigerian youths in national development imperative. recent happenings particularly the 2023 general elections and the high level of youth unemployment have raised many pertinent questions especially the place of the youth and their take with regard to the future development of this country. the nigerian political space is dominated by old and almost senile politicians who do not care about the future of the country and her citizens. the same applies to the economic sphere where few old people are holding sway, resulting in the youths resorting to all kinds of economic vices like cybercrime, 419 and money rituals. even in the sphere of sports, the politicians determine who represents the nation in various games. merit is jettisoned and sacrificed on the altar of mediocrity, nepotism, religion, ethnicity and godfatherism. the resultant effects are the stagnation and backwardness of the nation. the aim of this paper is to reevaluate the role of the nigerian youth in national development taking into cognizance the role the youths have played before in championing the cause of national development. the paper employs the philosophical methods of analysis and evaluation to conclude that only a radical philosophy of liberation can salvage the nigerian youths from this malaise and empower them to play their rightful role in national development. keywords: nigeria, youth(s), development, national development and philosophy of liberation introduction: the youth force is an invaluable asset of the nation. the youths are not only a vital force of the state but also a change agent. the youths are pioneers of economic, social, political and cultural transformation and change driving force. this class remains an important asset of the nation because of courage, innovativeness, inquisitiveness and high level of self-confidence, which are also considered to be the main sources of nation building. population of the youth in nigeria accounts for almost 37% of the total population, “given that the youth is the backbone of the nation from both qualitative and quantitative perspectives, it is necessary to make overall development of the youth and include their capacity in the mainstream of national development” (national youth policy re-evaluation of the role of the nigerian youth in national development anthony c. areji, ph.d department of philosophy/ university of nigeria, nsukka & eze, chima fidelis department of philosophy/ university of nigeria, nsukka & chukwunweolu, stephen olisaemeka department of philosophy/ university of nigeria, nsukka 76 of nepal, 2010). the nigerian youths are unique in many ways and should be integrated into the mainstream of national development so as to enable them contribute their quota to the development of the nigerian nation. regrettably, this is not the situation. the nigerian nation is abundantly blessed with both human and material resources. with a population of about 200 million and abundant natural resources, the country ought to be among the high-ranking nations in the development index. regrettably, this is not the case. nigerian ranks very low in the development index with about 60% of her population living below the united nations benchmark of one us dollar a day. what this translate into is that majority of the populations are living below poverty level. this is an irony considering the resources available. no wonder the former u.s. president, bill clinton on a visit to nigerian during the olusegun obasanjo's regime made a comment “nigeria is richly blessed but poverty stricken”. the former american secretary of state, hillary clinton once described nigeria as a failed state. yet, nigeria is the giant of africa and once “she sneezes, other african countries catch cold”, what an irony. the situation in nigeria especially the situation of the nigerian youth is not only pathetic both lamentable; youths without future. these hopeless youths are embodiments of different talents, creativity and ingenuity. these god-given potential talents are left untapped to the detriment of both the youths and the nigerian nation because untapped talents, creativity and ingenuity are wasted assets. these untapped talents are the bedrock of development in any society. the indispensability of development to the survival of any society is not contestable. even in nature, all living things obey the natural law of development. once a living organism disobeys this law, it ceases to exist. this is also applicable to any society. let us pray that the nigerian nation will not cease to exist. the youths are not only the leaders of tomorrow but also the future of any nation. a nation without the youth is a nation without future. the importance of the youth in developing their habitats and environment, in bringing changes to their production systems, of introducing new technology, in questioning existing power structures and changing age-old inhibitory social beliefs and attitudes has been articulated several times over. the youths are the key to sustaining long-term social, economic and political development, and are an integral part of the society. thus, the youths play an important role in shaping a successful future for societies the world over (divyakriti, 2015). the nigerian youths have the capacity to do all these and even more. however, their participation and involvement in national development have been hampered due to neglect by successive government. this is the thesis of this paper. conceptual clarification the youth: this class consists of young people between the ages of 15 to 42. some classify them as between 16 to 40 years. this group constitutes the most productive force of the population and in most countries constitutes one-third (1/3) of the population. aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june they are the foundation of the economy and the most latent and active force for change and transformation of any society (edelman, g.u. et al: 2004). all these are made possible through youth leadership. youth leadership can be defined in two ways; the ability to guide and direct others on a course of action, influence the opinion and behaviour of other people and show the way by going in advance (wehmeyer, agraan, and hughes, 1988) and “the ability to analyse one's own strengths and weaknesses, set personal and vocational goals, and have the self-esteem to carry them out. it includes the ability to identify community resources and use them, not only to live independently, but also to establish support networks to participate in community life and to effect positive social change” (adolescent employment readiness centre, children's hospital n.d). this is the type of youth leadership the students union government should provide and inculcate into the students to enable them face life in a realistic way both in the university and the larger world. development the term development is very eclectic. different scholars define it in different ways. while some see development as material, others see it as encompassing both the material and the spiritual. however, this paper is not going into the debate of what constitute development. ugwuja (2008) defines development as a gradual movement along a definite trend from one stage to another involving several stages producing cumulative effects towards the achievement of a desired goal or objective of the people. the phases of changes are initiated by the people within the community or society. it is a qualitative improvement in the living standard of a people as exemplified by the level of industrialization, food production, size and distribution of labour force, pattern of income distribution, health facilities and access to its use, security, access to education, good housing and availability of basic amenities. for rodney (1969), development is a multifaceted process. at the level of the individual, it implies increased skills and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, selfreliance, responsibility and material wellbeing. development for nyerere (1978) is man's capacity to expand his consciousness and therefore his power over himself, environment and his society. man for him is the central pivot around which development revolves. todaro (1989) defines development as a re-organisation and re-orientation of the entire economic and social systems. this involves, in addition, improvement of income and output, radical changes in institutional, social and administrative structures as well as in popular attitude, customs and beliefs. development can be conceived as a process and a situation whereby the basic needs of the people are taken care of in terms of their social needs and services. this kind of view shows that the concept of development is rooted in the concept of the overall political, social, economic, cultural and technical aspects (ugwuja, 2008). 77 areji, eze & chukwunweolu re-evaluation of the role of the nigerian ... as adequate and exhaustive these definitions are, there are inadequacies. development should begin with the human person and from there, proceed to the environment. in this vein, development will be defined as a striving by the human person for his/her overall positive development and his/her environment. it encompasses all the efforts we make to improve ourselves and our environment and by extension our society/nation. these efforts include economic, socio-political, cultural, spiritual and moral aspects of our being. national development is also used to refer to a constructive process of engaging all citizens and building social cohesion, economic prosperity and political stability in a nation in an inclusive and democratic way (jega, 2012). national development therefore means all these efforts by the citizens of a nation to make life better and healthier. following from the nigerian perspective, it entails all the efforts the nigerian youths have made to make this country better. the opposite of development is underdevelopment. this situation is characterised by stagnancy, deterioration, decay, insecurity and abject living standard of the people. this is the situation in many countries of the world especially in africa and asia. the role of the youth in national development the youths are the vital force of any nation. without the youths, there would be no nation. no development is possible without the contributions and efforts of the youths. the nigerian youths have played major and indispensable roles in all facets of our national development. in the area of security, the youths constitute the greater bulk of our security personnel. the security agents have and are still involved in the task of ensuring the security of lives and property. nigeria would have ceased to exist if not for the efforts of these young men and women in protecting the nation from both internal insurgency and external aggression. many of them paid the supreme price in the course of these assignments. the boko haram insurgency is one of these aggressions. the bedrock of the national economy is the labour force provided by the youths. the youths are the driving force behind the economy of any nation. they form the bulk of the working populations. they are responsible for creating the wealth of any nation, they possess a lot of talents, creativity and ingenuity which are sources of creating national wealth. unfortunately, in nigeria, the greater population of the youth are unemployed with an estimated unemployment rate at about 60%, most of these youths are denied the opportunity to contribute their own quota to national development. in the area of sports, the youth are the engine house of sports development. the nigerian youths have contributed immensely to the development of sports at both local and international levels. some of our celebrated sportsmen and women are ambassadors of global organisations like unicef. the kanu heart foundation has saved many lives. these sportsmen and women have contributed immensely to national development. 78 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june the entertainment industry in nigeria is one of the best in africa. the nollywood industry is a major contributor to national development. the same goes for the music industry and other entertainment and shows. this sector alone, (entertainment) has provided many youths with decent jobs and consequently enhancing their contributions to national development. the youths are agents of political and social change in many countries of the world, the youths determine and direct the course of political and social life of the nation. this is made possible because of their population. the history of nigeria is replete with this legacy. the youths' demonstration in 1963 led to the abolition of the office of the governor-general and restored full republican status to the nation. the anti sap riots and the i.b.b.-must-go demonstration changed political course/trajectory of nigeria and forced babangida to step aside in 1993. the nigerian youths were also major key players in the 2015 general election that witnessed the defeat of the ruling party and an incumbent president by the opposition all progressive congress led by muhammadu buhari, the end sars protests etc. major political and social revolutions all over the world are executed by the youths. the youths are not only agents of change but also reformist as well. more instances can be given in enumerating the contributions of the youths to national development ad infinitum. this is because there is hardly any spectrum of our national life that the youths have not impacted. from security to wealth creation, political and social, sports and health, rural and urban development, shaping national opinion to change and reform, education and religion, the youths have contributed to development. however, in recent times, there is a serious decline to these contributions. what are responsible for this decline? why are the nigerian youths of today not as active as the youths of yesterday? why this high level of complacency? what is the role of the youths and the government in the emergence of this anomaly and what does this situation portend for the future of the nigerian nation? youth programmes in nigeria since independence in 1960, successive governments in nigeria have initiated different programmes aimed at creating a forum for the youths to contribute to national development. the gowon administration established the national youth service corps (nysc) scheme in 1973. the aim was to create a platform for the nigerian youths to serve the nation in states outside their zone. this is to enable the youths from diverse cultural and language background to interact with a view of enhancing national unity. this scheme is still ongoing but the philosophy behind the scheme is being greatly challenged. intending corps members now work their posting to states of their choice. secondly, many corps members see the national service as a routine and a period of rest after the hectic days in the higher institution. a greater number are interested in the monthly allowance. regrettably, there are no concerted efforts on the part of the government to address this ugly trend. 79 areji, eze & chukwunweolu re-evaluation of the role of the nigerian ... beside the national youth service corps scheme, the babangida administration established the national directorate of employment (nde) and the directorate of food, road and rural infrastructure (dfrri) to cater for youths' unemployment. the open apprenticeship scheme of the nde was created to enable youths acquire skills that will help them establish themselves and contribute to national development. there are also national poverty eradication programme (napep) and the subsidy reinvestment programme (sure-p). these are laudable programmes to ensure youth participation in national development. unfortunately, all these programmes have not achieved the goal for which they were established. the reason is not far-fetched. successive governments in nigeria are good policymakers but poor policy implementors. these programmes were marred by endemic corruption and lack of commitment on the part of both the youths and the government. most youths who participated in these programmes were enlisted by influential politicians and traditional rulers as fringe benefits for them to collect monthly stipends. they do not have the need and the commitment. in some cases, the money meant for the programme finds its way into the purses of wives of traditional rulers and party stakeholders. the youths are also responsible for their inability to contribute positively to national development. there is a negative value system prevalent among the youths. these value systems are consumerism, squandermanism, good life without hard work, corruption and quick riches. many nigerian youths operate with these negative values. for this group, “life is nothing but enough money to buy good food and drinks, a good and well-furnished house, a good and one-in-town car, a good network of human connections to enable one to get anything one wants (eboh, 2005). the need for good ladies to play and move around with could be added to the above list. how and where this money comes is immaterial but it must come. the consequences are internet fraud, 419, corruption and pen stealing or what many call white collar robbery. in nigeria today, “the average nigerian strongly believes that money is almighty and can achieve anything and everything. it is the key to paradise on earth, to prosperity, power, social importance, even national honours etc. (okolo, 1993). this is why the pursuit for money is a do or die affair. this attitude is responsible for the high rate of crime and even ritual murders. it has also made the youth more consumer oriented than production oriented. we are currently under the firm grip of money consciousness, consumer oriented and squandermania mentality (asogwa, 2008). nobody is interested in what he/she can contribute to national growth rather what bothers most is how to milk the nation dry. the contentious issue is how to share the national cake without caring how the national cake is baked. this has resulted in an unprecedented high level of corruption which ultimately distorts national development. this corruption and impunity are seen by many as the factors responsible for poor performance of the past jonathan's administration and a major contributor to the defeat of the administration in the 28th march, 2015's presidential election and the present buhari administration. 80 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june this situation is not only hopeless but pathetic. it makes our youth a generation without future. the present is gloomy, the future uncertain. this psychological quagmire has resulted in drug abuse and other social vices among the youths. the big question becomes; is there any way out? the way forward the problem of national development in nigeria is anchored on a negative philosophy which inevitably gives birth to poor and wrong value system and orientation. for any nation to grow, the youths must have a positive philosophy which guides their lives. the nigerian youths are victims of negative philosophy and poor value system. the only way forward is a value re-orientation of the nigerian youths. this value reorientation must emphasize the dignity of labour, integrity and all positive and honourable ways of living. it will be a philosophy that will de-emphasize the current negative value where people want to be rich without working, a philosophy of indolence. this philosophy will enable the youths raise critical questions concerning their role in the scheme of national development. it is this critical attitude that will enable the youths interrogate their current role and make a u-turn for the better. philosophy as a rational, critical, reflective, systematic and coherent inquiry is possessed by all human beings because any normal being will always examine and re-examine his/her world and his/her experiences. this is the foundation and a sine-qua-non for human and national development. according to bertrand russell (1978) the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the co-operation or consent of his deliberate reason. this is the core of the problem of the nigerian youths, no tincture of philosophy. with a tincture of philosophy, they will be “furnished with a strong foundation for critical thought” (agudosy, 2009). this may partly be the reason why the national universities commission (nuc) made the study of philosophy compulsory in the university curriculum. this will go a long way in enhancing critical thinking and inculcating the right values into our youths. towards a radical philosophy of liberation according to stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, philosophy of liberation is the distinct manifestation of latin american philosophy that has received the most international attention and that has had the most influence but within latin america and the united states. it has a practical aim: liberation. in very general terms, the philosophy of liberation defines itself as a counter philosophical discourse, whether it be a critique of colonialism, globalization, racism and socialism which is articulated from out of the experiences of exploitation, destitution, alienation and reification in the name of projects of liberation, autonomy and authenticity. 81 areji, eze & chukwunweolu re-evaluation of the role of the nigerian ... positively, the philosophy of liberation attends cultural diversity, gender and racial equality and political sovereignty. as a critique of all forms of philosophical dependency and inauthenticity, it is consciously and avowedly a meta-philosophy. this is the only philosophy that can wake the nigerian youths from their “dogmatic slumber”, from ineptitudeness, procrastination and instill in them the imperative of political, economic and socio-cultural participation and liberation. this philosophy has given birth to what is today celebrated as “youth power”. the youth power is not only global but impactful in global development. youth power is a campaign organised globally for making the world much more developed. the youths of the society try to make changes at the local, national and international levels with their creativity and proper way of thinking. they mostly encourage other people in the society to participate in the movement towards the development of the country. according to ezekwesili (2013), as globalization and modern technology continue to shrink our world, people are connecting worldwide as never before, particularly young people who are overcoming cultural, geographical, language and ethnic barriers with ease. for the first time in human history, we are seeing the emergence of a global youth culture with common values, dreams and desires. youths of other nations have questioned and overturned the status quo and established new norms in the governance of their nations. the nigerian youths are no exception. when it becomes an imperative for their generation to save nigeria from its cycles of disastrous and destructive choices promoted by the older generations, then, they can rightly be called the turning point generation (ezekwesili, 2013). the turning point is when there begins to emerge a new nigeria that is radically different from all that we have known of failures politically, economically and socio-culturally. the turning point is the point of restoration of dignity to nigeria. that quality or state of being worthy of esteem or respect; of being regarded as nobility and having worth. this type of youths with this liberation philosophy cannot permit the show of shame by the independent national electoral commission (inec) and our political and spiritual leaders. this brand of youths will operate on dignity that is conferred on a life of effort and hard work and not on a life of ignoble ease for the latter can easily become dulled by contemptible wealth as is very prevalent in our nigerian society today. the nigerian youths of today are plagued with an attitude of fatalism which is resignation and acceptance of any situation. these are not the youths that will contribute positively to national development. the youths should borrow a leaf from the indefatigable nigerian youths of yesterday who fought for and initiated moves for positive changes. the end sars protest is still a reference point where youths rose up and said no to injustice. nigerian youths can only make their impact felt if there is a driving ideology in the form of a philosophy of social action. only a radical philosophy in the form of a philosophy of liberation can provide them with the tool to change the status quo and contribute positively towards national development in our contemporary world. 82 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june concluding reflection obviously, any nation's existence is premised on the existence of the youths. no youths, no nation. the nigerian youths have made remarkable contributions to national development but lately, this role has come under scrutiny and doubt. the decline in this role is attributable to a poor value system. this anomaly can be corrected by a value reorientation which will inculcate the right values into our youths. this philosophy will equip them adequately to play their pivotal roles in national development. what the nigerian youths need now is critical and discerning minds that will enable them distinguish the good from the bad, the noble from the ignoble, and reality from the shadow. only a sound mind occasioned by philosophical vision can enable them achieve this. azenabor (2010) argues that philosophers with “their concerns for values, goals, ends of human society, human activity and the means of achieving these, the philosophers are better qualified to play the role of helping to determine societal values, development and progress”. we are all philosophers by virtue of our rationality. what is required of us is the application of that rationality to the problems of national development. this will “make us citizens of the universe, not only on one walled city at war with all the rest. in this citizenship of the universe consist man's true freedom and his liberation from the thralldom of narrow hopes and fears” (russell, 1978). the problem with the nigeria youths is the relegation of philosophy to the background. philosophy brings about authentic human relationship which is needed for national development. according to w. t. stace, “whether we like it or not, we cannot escape philosophy: because on whatever road of knowledge we travel, philosophy lies in wait for us”. bibliography agudosy, f.1. (2009) “philosophy as a profession” in b. 1. ewelu (ed), philosophy: of what relevance? enugu: delta publication. anichebe, obiora ed. (2008) logic, philosophy and human existence nsukka: afroorbis publishing co. ltd. areji, a.c. (2005) uche vol. 12. journal of the department of philosophy, university of nigeria nsukka, 2005. asker, s. and gero, a. (2012). the role of child and youth participation in development effectiveness. sydney. childfund australia. azenabor, g. (2010). philosophical psychology: selected readings 3rd ed. lagos. concept publications. divyakirti, v. (2015). rural development: the strategic option of youth employment. a.f. ferguson and co. eboh, b.o. (2005). living beyond materialism. nsukka: afro-orbis publishing co. ltd. edelman, a. gill, p. et al. (2004). youth development and youth leadership. national collaborative for workforce and disability for youth. ezekwesili, obiageli. (2013). “the wealth and poverty of a nation: who shall restore nd the dignity of nigeria?” 42 convocation lecture of the university of nigeria, nsukka. 83 areji, eze & chukwunweolu re-evaluation of the role of the nigerian ... gribble, j. (2010). investing in youth for national development. population reference bureau. international year of the youth 2010-2011 youth participation in development, summary guidelines for development partners. jega, b.m. (2012). nigerian youth and national development. okolo, c.b. (1989) philosophy of education and education of philosophy. enugu: snaap press, 1989. okolo, c.b. (1992). problems of african philosophy and other essay. enugu: cecta. rodney, w. (1969) how europe underdeveloped africa. washington d.c.: howard university press. rusell, b. (1978). the problem of philosophy. oxford: oxford university press. uguwja, o.m. (2008) community development socio-economic dimension. onitsha: condelac prints ltd. van gyampo, r.e. and oben-odoom, f. (2013). “youth participation in local and national development in ghana: 1620-2013” in the journal of pan african studies, vol. 5(9). 84 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 185 abstract disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (ddr) is a process that involves disarming former combatants, providing them with opportunities for livelihoods and education, and integrating them back into society as peaceful and productive citizens. this approach is intended to promote stability and prevent the resurgence of violence in conflict-affected regions. it is necessary to examine the ddr in nigeria, and analyse its successes. the methodology adopted is the content analysis approach. the paper adopted the integrated disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration standards (iddrs) framework. the iddrs framework provides guidelines for planning, implementing, and monitoring ddr programs, based on principles of human rights, gender sensitivity, conflict sensitivity, and the participation of all stakeholders in the ddr process. the findings revealed that the effectiveness of the ddr programs has been mixed, with some programs achieving their objectives while others have been largely ineffective. the paper concludes that implementing successful ddr programs in nigeria requires addressing the root causes of conflicts, building trust among key stakeholders, ensuring adequate funding and political commitment, promoting social and economic integration, and involving local communities in the process. it recommends that the nigerian government should develop a comprehensive national strategy that outlines the objectives, timelines, and resources required for the successful implementation of ddr programs. keywords: disarmament, reintegration, terrorists, programs, government, nigeria introduction disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (ddr) is a process that has been widely used to address conflicts in various parts of the world, including in post-conflict societies. the process involves disarming former combatants, providing them with opportunities for livelihoods and education, and integrating them back into society as peaceful and productive citizens. in nigeria, ddr has been proposed as a strategy for addressing the menace of terrorism that has plagued the country for several years. disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of terrorist groups in nigeria emmanuel ochalifu nasarawa state university keffi institute of governance and development & bernard fayam nda nasarawa state university keffi institute of governance and development 186 terrorism in nigeria has been a major security challenge for the country, with several terrorist groups operating in different parts of the country. these groups, including boko haram and the islamic state west africa province (iswap), have been responsible for thousands of deaths and the displacement of millions of people (ibrahim, 2020). the nigerian government has been using military force to combat these groups, but the approach has not been entirely successful in addressing the root causes of terrorism (bawa & tunku, 2019). nigeria has experienced multiple insurgencies and terrorist activities, which have resulted in significant human suffering, destruction of property, and displacement of people. the government has responded to these challenges by adopting various approaches, including military operations and ddr programs. ddr programs are aimed at disarming combatants, demobilizing them, and reintegrating them into society. this approach is intended to promote stability and prevent the resurgence of violence in conflict-affected regions (onuoha, 2019). ddr has been proposed as an alternative strategy for addressing terrorism in nigeria. the process involves disarming terrorists, providing them with education and vocational training, and reintegrating them into society. the goal is to turn former terrorists into productive members of society who can contribute positively to the country's development (okechukwu, 2019). there are several challenges to implementing ddr in nigeria, including a lack of political will, insufficient funding, and the difficulty of identifying and disarming terrorists (aghedo & imhonopi, 2020). additionally, there are concerns about the potential risks of reintegrating former terrorists into society, including the possibility that they may return to terrorist activities (okechukwu, 2019). despite these challenges, there are examples of successful ddr programs in other parts of the world, including in liberia and sierra leone (mwaura, 2017). these programs have been successful in disarming combatants, providing them with education and vocational training, and reintegrating them into society. lessons from these programs can be applied to the nigerian context to design a ddr program that addresses the unique challenges of terrorism in the country. in recent years, there have been renewed efforts to implement ddr programs in nigeria, particularly in the northeast region, which has been most affected by boko haram terrorism. the nigerian government, in collaboration with international partners such as the united nations development programme (undp), has launched several ddr initiatives aimed at promoting stability, economic growth, and social cohesion in the region (undp, 2018). ddr has been proposed as a strategy for addressing terrorism in nigeria. while there are challenges to implementing such a program, there are also examples of successful ddr programs in other parts of the world. with careful planning and implementation, ddr aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june 187 could be an effective strategy for addressing the root causes of terrorism in nigeria and promoting peace and development in the country. the paper therefore seeks to examine the ddr in nigeria and analyse its successes. the paper is segmented into five sections, beginning with the introduction. the second section clarifies the relevant concepts, while the third section explains the methodology used. the fourth section discussed the subject matter, while the fifth section concludes the paper. the concept of disarmament disarmament can be defined as the "reduction, limitation, or elimination of armaments" (bishop, 2007, p. 43). according to the united nations (un), disarmament is "the collection, documentation, control, and disposal of small arms, ammunition, explosives, and light and heavy weapons from combatants and often from the civilian population" (united nations, n.d.). disarmament has been a key topic of discussion in international relations and peace studies. according to biersteker and weber (1996), disarmament can be seen as a way to reduce the risks of war and promote international security. they argue that disarmament is not only about reducing the number of weapons, but also about changing the political, economic, and social structures that contribute to the proliferation of weapons. similarly, jentleson and britton (1998) argue that disarmament can contribute to the reduction of international tensions and the promotion of peaceful coexistence. they highlight the role of disarmament in building trust between nations and creating a more stable international environment. disarmament can also be seen as a tool for promoting development and addressing social, economic, and environmental challenges. according to boutros boutros-ghali, the former secretary-general of the united nations, disarmament is "not an end in itself but a means to promote human security, sustainable development, and peaceful coexistence" (boutros-ghali, 1995, p. 2). in addition, disarmament can be a way to address the humanitarian impact of armed violence. the international committee of the red cross (icrc) has emphasized the devastating consequences of armed conflicts and the urgent need for disarmament. the icrc has called for "effective disarmament measures that prioritize the protection of civilians and respect for international humanitarian law" (icrc, n.d.). disarmament is a complex concept that involves multiple dimensions, including security, development, humanitarian concerns, and respect for international law. scholars and practitioners have emphasized the importance of disarmament as a means to promote international peace and security, address social and economic challenges, and protect human rights. the concept of demobilization demobilization is the process of discharging combatants from military service and ochalifu & fayam nda disarmament, demobilization and reintegration ... reintegrating them into civilian life. according to kaldor and vincent, demobilization is "the process of returning combatants to civilian life, dismantling the structures of warfare, and consolidating peace" (kaldor & vincent, 2017, p. 132). similarly, berdal and ucko define demobilization as "the process by which excombatants are returned to civilian life and society, and the conditions that must be created for this transition to take place" (berdal & ucko, 2018, p. 2). another definition of demobilization is provided by annan, who describes it as "the process by which military personnel are released from their service obligations and returned to civilian life" (annan, 2005, p. 19). this definition focuses on the release of military personnel from their obligations, which is a crucial aspect of demobilization. furthermore, according to the united nations, demobilization is "the formal and controlled discharge of active combatants from armed forces or other armed groups" (united nations, 2019, para. 4). this definition emphasizes the formal and controlled nature of the demobilization process, highlighting the need for a structured approach to discharging combatants from armed groups. the concept of reintegration of terrorists reintegration of terrorists is a process that involves facilitating the return of former terrorists to society and their reintegration into their communities. according to hansen and sollenberg, reintegration "refers to the processes by which individuals are assisted to reintegrate into civilian life and society, and to access their human rights" (hansen & sollenberg, 2016, p. 5). this definition emphasizes the importance of supporting the former terrorists in their return to civilian life, including access to their basic human rights. similarly, chetcuti and faure define reintegration as "a set of activities and processes intended to facilitate the return to normal life of former members of violent extremist groups, and to prevent re-engagement in violence and criminal activities" (chetcuti & faure, 2020, p. 4). this definition highlights the importance of preventing former terrorists from engaging in violence or other criminal activities after their reintegration. according to the united nations, reintegration is "a process of restoring an individual or a group to a constructive place in society, whether they are returning from conflict, prison or other forms of exclusion" (united nations, 2019, para. 4). this definition emphasizes the need to support individuals who have been excluded from society, including former terrorists, in returning to a constructive role in their communities. in addition, in the context of ddr, reintegration is defined as "the process by which excombatants, their families, and communities acquire the capacity to cope with the social, economic, and political dimensions of sustainable reintegration" (united nations, 2006, p. 2). this definition highlights the need to support not only the individual but also their families and communities in the reintegration process, and the importance of sustainable 188 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june reintegration. methodology the methodology employed for this study is content analysis. it combines conceptual evaluation, theme analysis, and theoretical presentation. the approach of this study placed a strong emphasis on qualitative information acquired from secondary sources, such as journals, government websites, and written works. each and every bit of data acquired for this study is relevant to it. theoretical framework the paper adopts the integrated disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration standards (iddrs) framework. the iddrs framework was developed by the united nations. it provides guidelines for planning, implementing, and monitoring ddr programs, based on principles of human rights, gender sensitivity, conflict sensitivity, and the participation of all stakeholders in the ddr process (united nations, 2006). applying the iddrs framework to the ddr of terrorist groups in nigeria, the political and security context component would involve assessing the political and security situation in the country, identifying the actors involved in the conflict, and developing a comprehensive ddr strategy that takes into account the specific needs of the target population. the planning component would involve identifying the terrorist groups to be disarmed, demobilized, and reintegrated, as well as the community-based rehabilitation programs needed to facilitate their reintegration into society. the disarmament component would involve the collection and disposal of weapons held by the terrorist groups. this could be a challenging task, as some of these groups may be well-armed and may have access to sophisticated weapons. the demobilization component would involve the release of combatants from the terrorist groups and the provision of short-term assistance to facilitate their transition to civilian life. this assistance may include counselling, medical treatment, vocational training, and education. the reintegration component would involve the long-term process of reintegrating former combatants into society and addressing the root causes of the conflict. this could involve community-based rehabilitation programs that provide psychosocial support, education, vocational training, and access to basic services such as healthcare and housing. additionally, efforts must be made to ensure the participation of women and other marginalized groups in the ddr process. the monitoring and evaluation component would involve the assessment of the effectiveness of the ddr program and the identification of areas for improvement. this is a critical aspect of the ddr process as it allows for the identification of best practices and the development of evidence-based policies and programs. the application of the iddrs framework to the ddr of terrorist groups in nigeria has 189 ochalifu & fayam nda disarmament, demobilization and reintegration ... some challenges that need to be addressed. one of the main challenges is the issue of trust between the government and the terrorist groups. there is a lack of trust between the government and the terrorist groups, which makes it difficult to initiate dialogue and reach agreements on the ddr process. this challenge can be addressed by involving a neutral third party, such as the united nations, to facilitate dialogue and negotiations between the government and the terrorist groups. another challenge is the issue of security. the terrorist groups in nigeria are well-armed and have the ability to launch attacks on the ddr program and its participants. therefore, it is important to have a robust security plan in place to protect the ddr process and its participants. the security plan should involve the deployment of security forces to protect the ddr program, as well as the provision of security guarantees to the terrorist groups. finally, the issue of financing the ddr program needs to be addressed. ddr programs are usually expensive, and it may be challenging for nigeria to finance a comprehensive ddr program. therefore, it is important to seek financial support from international donors and the united nations to finance the ddr program. the iddrs framework provides a comprehensive approach to the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of terrorist groups in nigeria. however, it is important to address the challenges of trust, security, and financing to ensure the success of the ddr program. by addressing these challenges, it is possible to develop a ddr program that is effective, sustainable, and responsive to the needs of the target population. the root causes of terrorism in nigeria terrorism is a complex phenomenon that arises from a combination of political, economic, social, and ideological factors. in the case of nigeria, the root causes of terrorism are multifaceted and intertwined. some of the key factors contributing to the rise of terrorism in nigeria include poverty, inequality, corruption, and religious extremism. one of the primary drivers of terrorism in nigeria is poverty. nigeria is one of the poorest countries in the world, with over 40% of its population living in poverty (world bank, 2021). poverty often leads to a lack of access to education, healthcare, and basic services, which can create a sense of hopelessness and desperation among the population. terrorist groups often exploit this sense of desperation to recruit new members by promising economic opportunities and financial support (lamb, 2019). inequality is another factor contributing to the rise of terrorism in nigeria. the country has one of the highest income inequalities in the world, with the top 10% of the population owning over 40% of the country's wealth (world bank, 2021). this creates a sense of injustice and resentment among the population, which can lead to social unrest and violence. terrorist groups often exploit these feelings of anger and frustration to recruit new members and gain support for their cause (okoli & okeke-uzodike, 2015). corruption is also a significant factor contributing to the rise of terrorism in nigeria. the 190 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june country is ranked as one of the most corrupt countries in the world, with corruption permeating all levels of society (transparency international, 2021). corruption undermines the rule of law and erodes public trust in government institutions. this creates a fertile ground for extremist groups to exploit grievances and recruit new members (oluwakemi & oluwaseun, 2021). religious extremism is another factor contributing to the rise of terrorism in nigeria. the country has a diverse religious landscape, with a significant muslim population in the north and a significant christian population in the south. tensions between these religious groups have often led to violence and conflict, with extremist groups exploiting these tensions to advance their cause (ibeanu, 2016). another factor contributing to the rise of terrorism in nigeria is political instability. the country has experienced frequent political crises, particularly in the northern region, which has created a sense of disenfranchisement and marginalization among some communities. this sense of marginalization can lead to the formation of extremist groups, which seek to advance their political agenda through violence and terrorism (osumah & okwechime, 2019). additionally, the lack of effective governance and rule of law in some parts of nigeria has created a breeding ground for terrorist groups. some regions of the country have a weak or non-existent government presence, which allows extremist groups to operate with impunity and control territory (spearin, 2017). the availability of weapons is also a factor contributing to the rise of terrorism in nigeria. the country has a significant amount of small arms and light weapons in circulation, which have been used by terrorist groups to carry out attacks (global security, 2021). the porous borders of the country make it easy for weapons to be smuggled in from neighboring countries and regions, further exacerbating the problem. finally, external factors such as the global rise of terrorism and the spread of extremist ideologies also contribute to the rise of terrorism in nigeria. terrorist groups in nigeria have been known to collaborate with other extremist groups in the region and around the world, which can provide them with resources and support (adebayo, 2019). overview of previous ddr programs implemented in nigeria and their effectiveness several ddr programs have been implemented in nigeria in response to various conflicts, including the niger delta insurgency, the jos crisis, and the boko haram insurgency. however, the effectiveness of these programs has been mixed, with some programs achieving their objectives while others have been largely ineffective. one of the earliest ddr programs implemented in nigeria was the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (ddr) program for former combatants in the niger delta region. the program was designed to address the grievances of militants who had been involved in the region's long-standing conflict over oil resources. the program was successful in disarming and demobilizing the militants, but its reintegration component was less successful due to a lack of sustainable reintegration opportunities and inadequate funding (okonta, 2011). 191 ochalifu & fayam nda disarmament, demobilization and reintegration ... another ddr program was implemented in response to the jos crisis, which involved ethnic and religious tensions in the plateau state. the program aimed to disarm and demobilize combatants from both sides of the conflict and reintegrate them into their communities. the program was successful in disarming and demobilizing the combatants, but its reintegration component was hampered by a lack of political will, insufficient funding, and limited community involvement (uzodike, 2016). the most recent ddr program in nigeria is the operation safe corridor (osc) program, which is aimed at rehabilitating and reintegrating repentant boko haram members into society. the program provides a safe haven for the surrendering terrorists and offers them access to rehabilitation and vocational training. although the program has received some criticism for rewarding terrorists and not adequately addressing the root causes of terrorism in nigeria, it has been successful in facilitating the surrender of several hundred boko haram members (akinola & olawuyi, 2021). some scholars have identified several challenges that have hindered the effectiveness of ddr programs in nigeria. one of the major challenges is the lack of political will and commitment to implement the programs effectively. the nigerian government has been criticized for not providing adequate funding for ddr programs and not fully supporting the programs' implementation (oyefara, 2016). another challenge is the lack of coordination among government agencies responsible for implementing ddr programs. in some cases, different agencies have been involved in implementing different components of the program, resulting in a lack of coherence and integration in the overall approach to ddr. this lack of coordination has also led to duplication of efforts and wastage of resources (oyefara, 2016). furthermore, some scholars argue that ddr programs in nigeria have not adequately addressed the root causes of conflicts, such as poverty, inequality, and social exclusion. these underlying issues continue to fuel conflicts, even after the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of combatants (uzodike, 2016). the issue of sustainability has also been a challenge in previous ddr programs. some scholars argue that ddr programs in nigeria have not been sustainable, as there has been a lack of follow-up after the reintegration phase. this lack of follow-up has resulted in a high rate of recidivism, as many ex-combatants have returned to violence due to the lack of sustainable reintegration opportunities (okonta, 2011). previous ddr programs in nigeria have faced several challenges, including a lack of political will, inadequate funding, lack of coordination, failure to address the root causes of conflicts, and lack of sustainability. to ensure the effectiveness of future ddr programs in nigeria, it is essential to address these challenges and develop comprehensive, coordinated, and sustainable approaches to ddr that address the underlying issues driving conflicts in the country. success factors in implementing ddr programs in nigeria implementing successful disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (ddr) 192 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june programs in nigeria requires addressing the root causes of conflicts, building trust among key stakeholders, ensuring adequate funding and political commitment, promoting social and economic integration, and involving local communities in the process. one of the critical success factors in implementing ddr programs in nigeria is addressing the root causes of conflicts. ddr programs must take a holistic approach that addresses the underlying issues fuelling conflicts, such as poverty, inequality, and social exclusion (uzodike, 2016). ddr programs must focus on creating sustainable solutions that promote social and economic integration, provide education and employment opportunities, and support community development initiatives that address the root causes of conflicts. another success factor is building trust among key stakeholders. ddr programs must involve all stakeholders, including the government, non-governmental organizations, civil society groups, and local communities (oyefara, 2016). building trust requires transparent communication and active participation of stakeholders in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of ddr programs. it is essential to involve local communities in the process and ensure their needs and concerns are addressed. adequate funding and political commitment are also critical success factors in implementing ddr programs in nigeria. ddr programs require significant financial resources to be effective, and political commitment is essential for the success of the programs (okonta, 2011). the nigerian government must provide sufficient funding for ddr programs and demonstrate political will and commitment to their implementation. promoting social and economic integration is another success factor in implementing ddr programs in nigeria. ex-combatants must be provided with education, employment, and economic opportunities to promote their reintegration into society (uzodike, 2016). ddr programs must address the specific needs of different groups, such as women and youth, and promote their social and economic inclusion. involving local communities in the ddr process is critical for its success. local communities play a crucial role in the reintegration of ex-combatants, as they are often the first point of contact for ex-combatants (oyefara, 2016). local communities can provide social and economic support, facilitate access to education and employment opportunities, and help promote the social and economic integration of ex-combatants. comparison of nigeria's ddr programs to those implemented in other countries comparing nigeria's ddr programs to those implemented in other countries can provide insights into the strengths and weaknesses of nigeria's approach and highlight areas for improvement. some key comparisons are discussed below: 1. sierra leone: sierra leone's ddr program was implemented after a brutal civil war that lasted from 1991 to 2002. like nigeria, sierra leone's ddr program was aimed at disarming and reintegrating former combatants into society. however, sierra leone's ddr program had a stronger focus on community-based reintegration and provided vocational training and other support to ex-combatants. this approach was successful in reducing violence and promoting stability in sierra leone (hovil, 2010). 193 ochalifu & fayam nda disarmament, demobilization and reintegration ... 2. liberia: liberia's ddr program was also implemented after a civil war that ended in 2003. liberia's program was notable for its emphasis on security sector reform, which involved demobilizing and reintegrating both ex-combatants and former members of the security forces. this approach helped to rebuild trust in the security sector and promote stability in liberia (undp, 2005). 3. rwanda: rwanda's ddr program was implemented after the 1994 genocide, which left over 800,000 people dead. rwanda's program had a strong focus on justice and reconciliation, which included the prosecution of genocide suspects and the establishment of community-based gacaca courts. this approach helped to promote accountability and reconciliation in rwanda (krause & jaspars, 2005). 4. colombia: colombia's ddr program is ongoing and is aimed at reintegrating excombatants from the revolutionary armed forces of colombia (farc) into society. colombia's program has emphasized the importance of social and economic reintegration, which includes providing education and job training to ex-combatants. this approach has helped to promote stability and reduce violence in colombia (united nations department of political and peacebuilding affairs, 2020). in comparison to these countries, as anyadike (2013) puts it, nigeria's ddr programs have had mixed success. while some programs, such as the 2009 amnesty program, have been successful in reducing violence and promoting stability, other programs have been hindered by corruption, inadequate funding, and a lack of political commitment. furthermore, nigeria's ddr programs have not always addressed the root causes of conflict, such as poverty, inequality, and political marginalization conclusion implementing successful ddr programs in nigeria requires addressing the root causes of conflicts, building trust among key stakeholders, ensuring adequate funding and political commitment, promoting social and economic integration, and involving local communities in the process. future ddr programs in nigeria should focus on developing a comprehensive, coordinated, and sustainable approach that addresses the specific needs of different groups and promotes their social and economic inclusion. comparing nigeria's ddr programs to those implemented in other countries highlights the need for a comprehensive and participatory approach that addresses the root causes of conflict, promotes social and economic reintegration, and involves local communities. furthermore, a focus on security sector reform, justice and reconciliation, and community-based reintegration can also contribute to the success of ddr programs in nigeria. recommendations after considering several literatures and analysing the contents, the following suggestions are made by the paper: 1. the nigerian government should develop a comprehensive national strategy that outlines the objectives, timelines, and resources required for the successful 194 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june implementation of ddr programs in the country. the strategy should involve all relevant stakeholders, including the military, civil society organizations, and local communities. 2. the government should allocate more resources to ddr programs in nigeria to ensure that the programs are adequately funded and implemented effectively. this will help to improve the effectiveness and sustainability of the programs. 3. ddr programs in nigeria should focus on addressing the root causes of terrorism, such as poverty, unemployment, and marginalization. this will help to prevent the recurrence of terrorism in the country and ensure that ex-combatants are effectively reintegrated into society. 4. the government should improve coordination between different agencies involved in the implementation of ddr programs to ensure that the programs are implemented effectively and efficiently. 5. ddr programs in nigeria should prioritize the participation of women and youth, as they are often the most vulnerable to the impacts of terrorism and conflict. this will help to ensure that the programs are inclusive and address the needs of all members of society. the government should establish a monitoring and evaluation mechanism to assess the effectiveness of ddr programs in nigeria. this will help to identify areas for improvement and ensure that the programs are meeting their objectives. references adebayo, o. (2019). terrorism in west africa: an overview of trends, threats, and responses. center for strategic and international studies. retrieved from . march 26, 2023 aghedo, i., & imhonopi, d. (2020). the challenge of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (ddr) in nigeria. in o. e. oluduro & t. o. olaniyan (eds.), security and development challenges in contemporary nigeria (pp. 243-266). palgrave macmillan. akinola, o. b., & olawuyi, d. (2021). operation safe corridor and de-radicalisation of boko haram terrorists in nigeria: an assessment. journal of terrorism research, 12(1), 1-10. annan, k. (2005). in larger freedom: towards development, security and human rights for all. united nations. anyadike, n. o. (2013). disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration in nigeria: the role of non-state actors. african security review, 22(2), 94-108. bawa, u., & tunku, s. m. (2019). the boko haram insurgency in nigeria: perspectives and counterterrorism strategies. in m. z. rosli & m. e. ariffin (eds.), https://www.csis.org/analysis/terrorism-west-africa-overview-trends-threatsand-responses https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45551-7_10 ochalifu & fayam nda disarmament, demobilization and reintegration ... 195 https://www.csis.org/analysis/terrorism-west-africa-overview-trends-threats-and-responses https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45551-7_10 contemporary issues in social sciences (pp. 147-170). springer. berdal, m., & ucko, d. (2018). introduction. in m. berdal & d. ucko (eds.), demobilizing armed groups after civil wars: political and social outcomes (pp. 1-14). georgetown university press. biersteker, t. j., & weber, c. (1996). the social construction of weapons: disarmament and arms control negotiations. contemporary security policy, 17(1), 5-32. bishop, r. (2007). the oxford essential dictionary of the us military. oxford university press. boutros-ghali, b. (1995). an agenda for peace: preventive diplomacy, peacemaking, and peace-keeping. united nations. chetcuti, j., & faure, o. (2020). reintegration of former members of violent extremist groups: learning from international experience. united nations development programme. global security. (2021). nigeria: small arms and light weapons. retrieved from march 26, 2023. hansen, l., & sollenberg, m. (2016). reintegrating extremists: evaluating the effectiveness of disengagement, de-radicalization and rehabilitation programs. international centre for counter-terrorism. hovil, l. (2010). beyond ddr: integrating ex-combatants and communities in sierra leone. international journal of transitional justice, 4(1), 86-106. ibeanu, o. (2016). religious conflicts and terrorism in nigeria: a strategic review. africa development, 41(3), 111-131. ibrahim, k. (2020). the effects of terrorism in nigeria. journal of political science and international relations, 3(1), 1-7. international committee of the red cross (icrc). (n.d.). disarmament and the protection of civilians. retrieved from march 28, 2023 jentleson, b. w., & britton, r. k. (1998). still achieving: the contribution of disarmament to international security. journal of peace research, 35(2), 163-180. kaldor, m., & vincent, j. (2017). on the importance of getting rid of war. international affairs, 93(1), 131-142. krause, j., & jaspars, s. (2005). introduction: the political economy of post-conflict aid in rwanda. disasters, 29(s2), s1-s16. lamb, k. (2019). poverty and terrorism: a causal relationship? defense and security analysis, 35(1), 98-113. mwaura, s. n. (2017). disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (ddr) in africa: lessons from sierra leone and liberia. in s. n. mwaura & f. w. murithi (eds.), disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration in kenya: prospects and challenges (pp. 27-40). palgrave macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9875-5_9 https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/nigeria/arms.htm https://www.icrc.org/en/what-wedo/disarmament-and-protection-civilians https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix221 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3 196 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9875-5_9 https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/nigeria/arms.htm https://www.icrc.org/en/what-we-do/disarmament-and-protection-civilians https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iix221 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59611-3_3 319-59611-3_3 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98654-8_10 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98654-8_9 https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/nzl https://www.ng.undp.org/content/nigeria/en/home/library/poverty/disarmamen t-demobilization-and-reintegration-ddr-of-ex-combatant.html https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/peacebuilding/sustaining-peace/colombia https://www.undp.org/content/dam/liberia/docs/ddr%20brochure.pdf https://undocs.org/s/2006/893 okechukwu, o. r. (2019). reintegration of former boko haram members in nigeria: policy and practice. in f. c. onuoha & t. r. mohammed (eds.), contemporary issues on terrorism, development and democracy in nigeria (pp. 201-223). springer. okoli, j. & okeke-uzodike, u. (2015). the impact of inequality, poverty, and unemployment on terrorism in nigeria. journal of economics and sustainable development, 6(2), 222-228. okonta, i. (2011). disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration in the niger delta: the niger delta amnesty programme. conflict, security & development, 11(2), 201224. oluwakemi, o. & oluwaseun, o. (2021). corruption and terrorism in nigeria: a nexus analysis. journal of criminological research, policy and practice, 7(1), 39-52. onuoha, f. c. (2019). the economic community of west african states (ecowas) and the fight against terrorism in west africa: achievements and challenges. in f. c. onuoha & t. r. mohammed (eds.), contemporary issues on terrorism, development and democracy in nigeria (pp. 179-200). springer. osumah, o., & okwechime, i. (2019). political instability and terrorism in nigeria: a review of the boko haram insurgency. journal of conflict transformation and security, 7(2), 59-75. oyefara, j. l. (2016). challenges of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (ddr) programs in nigeria. journal of sociology and social anthropology, 7(1), 1-9. spearin, c. (2017). terrorism and governance in nigeria. journal of strategic security, 10(3), 1-18. transparency international. (2021). corruption perceptions index 2020. retrieved from . march 26, 2023 undp. (2018). disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (ddr) of excombatants in nigeria: a pathway to sustainable reintegration and d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e n o r t h e a s t . united nations department of political and peacebuilding affairs. (2020). peacebuilding a n d s u s t a i n i n g p e a c e : c o l o m b i a . r e t r i e v e d f r o m march 27, 2023 united nations development programme. (2005). liberia: disarmament, demobilization, reintegration and rehabilitation (ddrr) programme. retrieved from . march 26, 2023 united nations. (2006). integrated disarmament, demobilization and reintegration standards. united nations. retrieved from . march 26, 2023 ochalifu & fayam nda disarmament, demobilization and reintegration ... 197 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59611-3_3 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98654-8_10 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98654-8_9 https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/nzl https://www.ng.undp.org/content/nigeria/en/home/library/poverty/disarmament-demobilization-and-reintegration-ddr-of-ex-combatant.html https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/peacebuilding/sustaining-peace/colombia https://www.undp.org/content/dam/liberia/docs/ddr%20brochure.pdf https://undocs.org/s/2006/893 united nations. (2019). disarmament, demobilization, reintegration and security sector reform. united nations. (n.d.). disarmament. retrieved from march 27, 2023 uzodike, u. o. (2016). disarmament, demobilization and reintegration in the jos crisis in nigeria. journal of peace, conflict and development, 22, 1-19. w o r l d b a n k . ( 2 0 2 1 ) . n i g e r i a . r e t r i e v e d f r o m . march 26, 2023. https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/disarmament-demobilizationreintegration-and-security-sector-reform https://www.un.org/disarmament/ https://data.worldbank.org/country/nigeria . 198 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/disarmament-demobilization-reintegration-and-security-sector-reform https://www.un.org/disarmament/ https://data.worldbank.org/country/nigeria a philosophical reflection on plotinus’ concept of beauty as an ecstatic experience of the soul justin nnaemeka onyeukaziri abstract this paper posits plotinus‘ conception of beauty as not only one of the answers to the question on how to fill the lacuna created by the demise of religious sublimity and awareness in many. but is the most persuasive and transforming way for individual spiritual transformation and by extension the transformation of the world. it focuses on plotinus‘ concept of beauty, from the perspective of the human person. attention has been given to plotinus‘ aesthetics mostly within the general scope of platonism, focusing on the notion of beauty as form (intellectual beauty) and on the question of whether or not beauty is conceived as symmetry both in plato and plotinus. this paper claims that the notion of beauty for plotinus is an ecstatic experience of the soul. thus, for plotinus, beauty is not just aesthetical, it is more so a spiritual experience in the soul. this focus on plotinus‘ notion of beauty is considered important as an alternative way for the cultivation of the interior life, in a world that is increasing becoming secularized. it is also relevant because the philosophical focus on beauty has largely been on the object out there. even when a subjective focus is given on the concept of beauty, it is not largely focused on the spiritual transformation of the human person. hence, this paper, is an analytical exposition of plotinus‘ works on beauty. keywords: aesthetics, beauty, ecstatic experience, soul 1. introduction plotinus (203-270 ce), as the father of neo-platonism no doubt occupies a very important position in the history of western philosophy, especially in the ranks of hellenistic philosophers. his impact and the influence of his thoughts on christian philosophy and religion in general during its earlier period is enormous. thus, his works are not unfamiliar to many christian and islamic religious and philosophical scholars, especially during the early medieval period. while attention has been sizably given to his metaphysics, comparably less has been given to his aesthetics. on many occasions, when attention is given to his aesthetics, it is done within the general scope of platonism. by focusing on the question of whether or not beauty is conceived as symmetry or in sense perception, this work thus, aims at focusing on plotinus‘ notion of beauty, from the perspective of the human person. that is to say, what does beauty do to the human person; how does beauty affect and transform the human person. this paper claims that the notion of beauty for plotinus is an ecstatic experience of the soul. thus, beauty is not just aesthetical, for plotinus it is more so spiritual. this focus on plotinus‘ notion of beauty is onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … considered important as an alternative way for the cultivation of the interior life, in a world that is increasing becoming secularized. it is also relevant because the philosophical focus on beauty has largely been on the object out there. even when a subjective focus is given on the concept of beauty, it is not largely focused on the spiritual transformation of the human person. therefore, to execute this research, focus would be given primarily to plotinus‘ works and reference to other texts would be provided if it is necessary to understand plotinus‘ own text. the methodology implored would be more an analytical and personal reflective reading of plotinus. hence, to put in perspective the plotinus notion of beauty as the ecstatic experience of the soul, a brief exposition of plotinus‘ cosmology will be exposed. this will help to clarify plotinus‘ understanding of the soul and its relationship with the realities in his cosmology as its relates to his notion of beauty. thus, to execute this, the following steps are taken: first, concisely expose plotinus‘ cosmology. second, plotinus‘ analysis and critique of the general concept of beauty will be exposed. third, a reflection on beauty as an ecstatic experience of the soul will be expounded. then there will be a conclusion reflecting on the transforming effect of beauty in the individual and the world. 2. plotinus’ cosmology plotinus is a thinker of an acutely active and rigorous critical mind, yet deeply spiritual and transcendental in his thinking and speculation. o‘meara (2010:301), describes plotinus thus: ―among the philosophers of late antiquity plotinus stands out as a thinker of exceptional depth, subtlety, originality and power.‖ he is indeed a man fully devoted to the transcendental life, whose last words to his pupil and his doctor, eustochius, is: ―try to bring the divine in us to the divine in the all‖ (quoted in o‘meara 2010: 302). as a diehard platonist, to understand the philosophy of plotinus, and specifically his notion of beauty, one has to understand at least the fundamental positions in the philosophy of plato. for instance, with respect to the concept of beauty, yount (2014:49), notes: both philosophers hold the following claims to be true: beauty is a form; beauty is similar to but not identical with the good; one can have a transformative vision of beauty; the imitator (artist, poet) of beauty does not know if the imitations are in fact beautiful or how bad his imitations are. besides, the philosophical kinship shared between plato and plotinus, to understand plotinus‘ philosophy, one also, needs to understand the positions where aristotle differs from plato. more so, how aristotle attempts to resolve the problems he considers inherent in plato‘s philosophy. this is because plotinus, though being the most outstanding and faithful platonist, especially during the hellenistic period, he never considered aristotle as an adversary of plato. plotinus, considers aristotle as walking on the same philosophical paths as his master, plato, and that he misunderstood certain positions of plato. this, he aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 tries to rectify by mutually employing the philosophical thoughts of both plato and aristotle in his own philosophical discourse. keeping with the philosophical spirit of the hellenistic roman periods, plotinus thoughts are not merely rational philosophical positions separated from life, but a philosophy of life. a seeking, that is aimed at being a source of moral and spiritual ways of life for a person. during this period, in fact, philosophy as spirituality, the training and preparing of the soul for death, was at its peak. keeping this in mind, the perspective of the cosmology of plotinus could be understood. as a platonist, plotinus‘ world-view or cosmology is idealist, thus, he maintains the key trends of plato‘s cosmology and cosmogony. plato‘s main exposition of his cosmology is in the dialogue entitled, timaeus. and plato‘s cosmology is the fruit of his reflection and the discussion with his students in timaeus. plotinus believes in a world that is structurally ordered, with three hypostases/principles: the one, the intellect (nous) and the soul (psuche). o‘meara (307: footnote no. 11), observes: ‗modern studies sometimes refer to soul, intellect and the one, in plotinus, as ―hypostases‖. however, plotinus uses the term hupostasis to refer, not to the one, but to the realities it produces, and a better term for all three would be ―principles‖, as suggested by gerson 1994:3.‘ he holds the existence of an ultimate transcendental reality, the first principle, which he calls the one or the good. the one is the first, ―in the sense that it is simplest, and the self-sufficient, because it is not composed of a number of parts‖ (against the gnostics, bk ii, 9(1),10). from the one comes the divine intellect which contains the forms of all things. after the divine intellect comes the soul, and then the bodies and all other lower realities of purely corporal nature. the one is the generative force of all things, thus it is the transcendental absolute being, good, beauty and truth. thus, the one is beyond the complete grasp of every human language. hence, he maintains, ‗whenever we say ―the one‖ and whenever we say ―the good,‖ we must think that the nature we are speaking of is the same nature, and call it ―one‖ not as predicating anything of it but as making it clear to ourselves as far as we can‘ (against gnostics, bk ii, 9(1), 5-10). thus however, language is used, however, because it is the only way to communicate or engage in a discourse of the one. the one is not like the judeo-christian god, that is, a creator outside the world. the one is eternally transcendent from the world and immanent in the world. in the same way, other levels of being in the plotinus‘ universe, are not completely apart from another. hence, though the divine intellect, the soul and body are distinct beings, the body is in the soul, the soul is in the intellect and the intellect is in the one. while the one is the absolute good, plotinus conceives matter, that is the sense-world, as the principle of evil (in the moral sense). plotinus, employs a rational formative principle which he calls, logos, that flows from the intellect, to explain the becoming and order of all things by providence (on providence (1), book 3(2),15-25). on the hierarchical order of levels of being in plotinus, armstrong (1966: xvii), elucidates that the one though ontological remote and distinct from other beings in his cosmology, the one is onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … metaphysically present in all the other beings in the hierarchy. hence, armstrong (armstrong,1966: xii) contends that there is an outgoing movement from unity (the one) to ever-increasing multiplicity (matter), which is a downward movement; the other movement is an upward movement from multiplicity to unification (the one). he considers these two movements as the profound tension in the thought of plotinus on the understanding of the first principle. this means, that while there is generative movement of multiplicity downwards from the one via the intellect and the soul, there is a transcendental ascending movement of unification and perfection, from the soul via the intellect to the one. this ontological relationship between the one, the intellect and the soul and their downward and upward movements respectively, are very essential in understanding plotinus‘ notion of beauty. below, then, shall be an analysis of his critique of the general conception of the beautiful. 3. plotinus’ analysis and critique of the general concept of beauty plotinus‘ concept of beauty is brilliantly exposed in his treatise entitled, on beauty. plotinus begins this treatise by reflecting on how beauty has been hitherto generally understood. hence, plotinus (on beauty book(bk) 1, 6(1), 1-5) submits: beauty is mostly in sight, but it is to be found too in things we hear, in combinations of words and also in music, and in all music [not only in songs]; for tunes and rhythms are certainly beautiful: and for those who are advancing upwards from sense-perception ways of life and actions and characters and intellectual activities are beautiful, and there is the beauty of virtue. in the above reference, plotinus briefly summarizes how beauty has been generally conceived before and during his era. thus, it should not be understood as the definition of beauty proper to him. his assertion is, according to the general view of many, beauty is conceived as activities within the realm of sense-perception. he strongly disagrees with this position. to this general view, the organs for sight and hearing, are the most prevalent human organs in the activities of conceiving beauty. when this is the case, then objects of beauty, could be found in physical and visible objects of nature and in fine and literary art works, like painting, sculpture, drawings, music, poetry, and songs of different forms. the second level of the general view of beauty in his submission stated above, is the conception of beauty in ―action and characters.‖ though plotinus did not provide examples of the beauties conceived in ―action and characters‖. it would not be incorrect to include here the beauties of drama, play and other theatric activities and the beauty of sports and military actions. the third level of the general view of beauty, is the beauty of or in intellectual activities: this would include all contemplative activities that engage the human mind or intellect. definitely the engagement in the natural sciences, mathematics aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 and above all philosophy (metaphysics) would belong to this category of beauty. the fourth level of the general view of beauty is the beauty of virtue: the beauty of virtue as the name implies is the beauty of the soul as a result of the virtuous activities of the soul. thus, this, is the beauty we perceive in the actions of a courageous, humble, patient, charitable person and the like. among the four general views of beauty highlighted above as summarized by plotinus, the first and the second are not considered to be essential in what plotinus constitutes as the beautiful. he only considers the third and the fourth views as the activities where what constitutes beauty could be possible. it shall be argued below, that plotinus considers the beauty of virtue as the greatest of all conceptions of beauty. the beauties of intellectual activities and the beauty of virtue are both that of non-sense-perception. they are spiritual in nature, for they involve and engage the interior life of a person. therefore, plotinus considers the realm of sense-perception as not being principal for the conception of beauty. in the second paragraph on the treatise on beauty (bk 1, 6(1), 10-20), plotinus raises six questions which could be considered as fundamental aesthetic questions: a. what makes us imagine or think a thing (body) is beautiful and attracts us? b. how are all the things which depend on the soul beautiful? c. are things all beautiful by a single beauty or are there different beauties in different things? d. what is this single or multiple beauties? e. what is the principle of beauty which is present in bodies (things)? f. what is it that attracts the gaze of people to a thing and makes them to enjoy the thing? (a) raises the question on the why and where of the beautiful. is the beautiful objectively in things or subjectively in the person who perceives the object? in other words, is the beautiful in the object per se, or in the person per se or in both? (b) presupposes that things depends on the soul to be judged to be beautiful. which means that the beautiful is not in the object per se. but the critical question of (b), is how does the beautiful in a thing/object depend on the soul? this he claims has to do with the forms of things. things can be beautiful because they possess forms. as would be argued below, for plotinus to be formless is to be ugly; formlessness is disorder. the question (c) raises the problematic that is inherent when the beautiful is conceived in respect to being ―well-proportioned‖ or mathematically symmetrical. when a beautiful house is adjudged to be such, is it as a result of the combination of the beauty of the constituted parts that are well-proportioned or is it as a result of the collective whole, which is the house? if it is either a single beauty or multiple beauties, (d) seeks to know what this beauty or these beauties are. (e) raises the questions on the quiddity of beauty, what makes beautiful things beautiful? that is to say what is the form of beauty per se? he considers, the last question (f) of a paramount onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … importance. for the understanding of it, he thinks is a stepping-stone to the understanding of the rest of the questions. (f) presupposes that the beautiful attracts and excites. but why do we get attracted to the beautiful and are excited in the beautiful is the crux of the question. thus, he asks: ―what is it that attracts the gaze of those who look at something, and turns and draws them to it and makes them enjoy the sight?‖ first, he gives the general responses of people. the first and common response is ―good proportion of the parts to each other and to the whole, with the addition of good colour‖ (bk 1, 6(1), 20-25). simply put, being beautiful is being ―well-proportioned and measured.‖ this is the question: whether or not beauty is symmetry? there has been a scholarly controversy among scholars on plotinus, whether plato and plotinus have the same view on beauty as symmetry. yount (2014:49-51), claims, anton and rist, posit that plato did not hold beauty as symmetry but plotinus does; but contrary to their views, he argues that both plato and plotinus are in agreement on the idea of symmetry and beauty. yount argues, that plotinus holds that beauty is form, but only argues for beauty as symmetry with regards to objects of sense-perception. and he believes that, that is also plato‘s position. gerson (1994), seems to hold that plotinus was reluctant to identify beauty with symmetry. he contends: ―on reflection, however, the refusal to identify beauty, even bodily beauty, with symmetry is somewhat puzzling. as we have seen, matter is unmeasuredness or absence of symmetry and form is a kind of symmetry‖ (p. 213). this paper argues, neither plato nor plotinus opposes this theory, they both hold that well proportioned and measure of parts and the whole, make up what is said to be beautiful. nevertheless, they did not consider well-proportioned and measure, that is, symmetry, as what defines the beautiful. it is the contemporaneous hellenistic school of thought, the stoics, who exclusively define the beautiful as well-proportioned and measured with the addition of good colour (see cicero, tusculan disputations, iv). plotinus‘ contention on this theory, is that if well-proportioned and measured is what essentially defines the beautiful, it implies that ―nothing single and simple but only a composite thing will have any beauty‖ (bk 1, 6(1), 25-30). for if beauty is in the whole as well-proportioned, it implies, the parts cannot be beautiful, since the parts are not well-proportioned. but how can there be the whole without the part? one can not even conceive the whole without necessarily conceiving the parts. hence, plotinus contends, if it is the case that beauty is exclusively well-proportioned, then, only the whole will be beautiful not the parts that make the whole. for the parts of a whole, do not have the property of beauty by themselves. when the beauty of a thing is grasped, the thing is grasped as a whole not in parts. plotinus‘ question for those who claim that beauty is well-proportioned per se, then will be, how can the whole be beautiful when the parts that makes the whole are not beautiful? aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 plotinus‘ counterargument is that, ―if the whole is beautiful the parts must be beautiful too; a beautiful whole can certainly not be composed of ugly parts; all the parts must have beauty‖ (bk 1, 6(1), 30-35). therefore, he deductively contends that it is not possible for the whole to be beautify without the parts. more so, even for a body that is whole, sometimes either because of lack of colours, or excess of colour from natural sunlight or from human made lights, things are judged to be beautiful or not beautiful. therefore, plotinus rejects this theory of beauty as well-proportioned as unsubstantial. he adjudges, ―being beautiful is something else over and above good proportion, and good proportion is beautiful because of something else‖ (bk 1, 6(1), 40-45). this ―something else‖ that constitutes ―being beautiful‖ is what this paper intends to disclose and will be explored below. plotinus, further rejects this theory (beauty as well-proportioned or symmetry) by arguing from beauty as actions: intellectual actions and virtuous actions. he holds that it will be practically impossible to state what constitutes the ―well-proportioned‖ in these non-body-like activities, if one considers them as having beauty. after establishing that the theory on well-proportioned and measured in addition with good colour, is not sustainable for defining the beautiful, he proffers what he thinks the primary beauty in bodies is. he maintains that the primary beauty in bodies: is something which we become aware of even at the first glance; the soul speaks of it as if it understood it, recognizes and welcomes it and as it were adapts itself to it. but when it encounters the ugly it shrinks back and rejects it and turns away from it and is out of tune and alienated from it (bk 1, 6(2),1 10). with this reference, plotinus maintains a different position on the conception of the beautiful. he points to the soul as the fundamental factor in the conception of the beautiful. he makes the soul of the human person the ground where the activities of beauty take place. for him what makes a thing beautiful is the form of the thing, and this form of the thing can only be grasped by the soul of the human person. hence, without the soul it is not possible to grasp the beauty of things. but how does plotinus conceive the soul, which is for him the fundamental principle where the conception of the beautiful happens? plotinus‘ conception of the soul is akin to the fundamentals of plato‘s conception of the soul, however, it has its own specificity. plotinus agrees with plato, in the understanding of the soul as the true spiritual and incorporeal being of the human being that inhabits in a physical and corporal body. thus, both agree that the soul is the ―great intermediary between the worlds of intellect and sense and the representative of the former in the latter‖ (armstrong, 1966: xxii). plotinus, unlike plato, distinguishes the concept of the third hypostasis/principle (that is to say, the hypostasis after the one and the intellect, in the onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … hierarchical structure of plotinus‘ cosmology as exposed above), into two: the individual souls and the universal soul. this means for plotinus, the third hypostasis (the soul) in his hierarchy of beings, though one reality is understood in two ways, the universal soul and the individual souls. the universal soul is the same soul that individuates itself as the individual souls in every human person. thus the individual soul as the form of the body for plotinus is more in the sense of the plato‘s form than in the sense of the aristotle‘s form. the soul of which plotinus speaks of in reference to beauty, is the individual souls. it is the part of a person where the contemplation of forms, and actions of virtues are produced and enacted. it is that part of a person that can bring the individual into union with the absolute one. hence, plotinus maintains that, the soul by its very nature, ―is related to the higher kind of reality in the realm of being, when it sees something akin to it or a trace of its kindred reality, is delighted and thrilled and returns to itself and remembers itself and its own possessions‖ (bk 1, 6(2), 5-10). what this implies, is that plotinus thinks that the soul which is spiritual has the similitude and capacity not only to recognize the beauty as a form of everything beautiful, but to also delight in beauty per se. in other words, there is something in the nature of the soul that enables it to grasp the beautiful. it is only by the means of the soul that beauty as one of the forms produced by the one, by the creative principle of logos in the intellect can be grasped and experienced by the human person. hence, it implies that for plotinus, the beauty is not in sense-perceptions but in the soul or the intellect. he maintains, that things are beautiful in the material world because they participate in the form of the beauty in the intellect. he puts it thus: ―we maintain that the things in this world are beautiful by participating in form‖ (bk 1, 6(2),15). while he explains absolute ugliness, thus: ―for every shapeless thing which is naturally capable of receiving shape and form is ugly and outside the divine formative power and form‖ (bk 1, 6(2),15-20). one should be careful not to understand the sense of form here, merely as the structure of a thing as in aristotle‘s notion of form. for as in plato‘s notion of form, plotinus holds that everything has, or better put is capable of a form. if beauty is well formness, ugliness is the distortion of form. it is thus the privation of the form of a thing that is naturally capable of receiving form, which is thus, outside the divine formative power, that is said to be absolute ugliness. below, shall be an exposition of how the soul grasps the form of the beautiful and what happens to the soul in its experience of the beautiful. 4. beauty as ecstatic experience of the soul for plotinus, beauty like truth is grasped by the contemplation of the soul on the form of beauty in things, as the soul ascends upwards through the intellect towards union with the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 one. the beauty grasped by the contemplation of the soul, is referred by plotinus as ―the beauty beyond.‖ he maintains that, ―about the beauties beyond, which it is no more the part of sense to see, but the soul sees them and speaks of them without instruments—we must go up to them and contemplate them and leave sense to stay down below‖ (bk, 6(4), 1-5). it follows, that, the grasping of the beauty beyond involves a personal encounter or an intuitive experience of the soul with the form of the beautiful. to this effect, plotinus posits this experience of the beauty, thus: ―these experiences must occur whenever there is contact with any sort of beautiful thing, wonder and a shock of delight and longing and passion and a happy excitement‖ (bk, 6(4),15-20). thus, one can say for plotinus the quiddity of an aesthetic experience is: a feeling of wonder, a shock of delight, passionate longing, and a happy excitement. these feelings are experienced irrespective of the beautiful thing encountered. based on the fact that these experiences take effect in the soul of a person, plotinus thus, argues for the reality of invisible beauties. hence, holding that one can have these aesthetic experiences, he adjudges that the souls can have invisible beauties, especially in the soul of those who are passionately in love with the invisible activities, which are basically activities of the mind and virtue (see bk, 6(4),20ff). using the metaphor of loving affection stung sharply between lovers, plotinus, engages in a discourse of beauty as an ecstatic experience of the soul. the experience of love between lovers, carnal or spiritual, has the characteristic experiences used by plotinus to describe the experience of beauty. they are: wonder, a shock of delight, passionate longing, and a happy excitement. plotinus‘ project here is to demonstrate that the kind of ecstatic experience that happens in the soul of the lover in the encounter with the beloved, is a similar kind of ecstatic experience that happens in the soul of the person who in union with the one, encounters the form of beauty in beautiful things. plotinus, asks the question: what makes lovers to have the above feeling? he completely rules out all activities on the order of sense-perception, such as shape, colour, size, as the cause of the ecstatic experience in the lover. but he claims that what makes lovers have these feelings is because of the presence of the souls which possess a moral order of virtues. he claims that, ―you feel like this when you see, in yourself or in someone else, greatness of soul, a righteous life, a pure morality, courage with its noble look, and dignity and modesty advancing in a fearless, calm and unperturbed disposition, and the godlike light of intellect shining upon all this‖ (bk, 6(5),10-15). by this response, plotinus once again dismisses mere ―well-proportioned and colour‖ as the essential properties of beauty. he thus exults beauty to a more sublime realm, that is effected by righteousness, virtues and an illuminated intellectual life. these properties of beauty, righteousness, virtues and illuminated intellectual life, as adduced by plotinus, are of the invisible and spiritual sublime realm that the soul must attain in order to truly grasp the beauty. they are what throw us into wonder and excitement when we are in love. courageous acts or the virtues of patient endurance and charity are always attractive and applauded by all, irrespective of onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … time, nationality, race, colour or culture. this explains why ethics and aesthetics always go together and are rarely inseparable. this sustains the point made above that for plotinus, beauty is essentially a spiritual experience in the soul, not in the activities of sense-perception. having established beauty as the ecstatic experience in the soul due to the contemplative relationship of the soul on the form of beauty, plotinus further argues that beauty, ―really exists‖, by the real existence of the properties that reveal the beautiful above. that is to say, beauty as form in the intellect, has subsistence existence. beauty is not merely the idea or the notion of the beautiful, it has a real existence. thus, the human soul becomes a beautiful soul when it falls in love with beauty in its path to union with the one. according to gerson (1994:212), this happens ―because beauty is a property of forms as contemplated, images of forms possess images of that property. images of beauty are found in bodies, and generally in objects of sight; objects of other senses; ways of life; actions; characters; and virtue (1.6.1).‖ in other words, individual things and actions or virtue are beautiful because in them is possessed the image of the form of beauty. therefore, what happens in the experience of the beautiful is the encounter of the soul with the form of beauty per se. this thus, requires a transcending upward movement of the human soul beyond the natural realm of sense-perception of individual things. this transcendence movement of the soul is enabled and perfected by activities of: virtue, righteousness and intellection. hence, these activities are what makes the soul lovable and beautiful. therefore, for the soul to maintain its beauty, it must not be corrupted by matter and the desires and passions of the body. for, ―so we shall be right in saying that the soul becomes ugly by mixture and dilution and inclination towards the body and matter‖ (bk, 6(5),45-50). thus, the soul must constantly purge itself of the lust of the body, by leading a virtuous and righteous life with a love for a contemplative intellectual life. socrates in plato‘s phaedo, has argued strongly for philosophy as the major means for the purification of the soul, asserting: ―release and separation of the soul from the body is the preoccupation of the philosophers‖ (67d). thus, the courageous and self-controlled soul is not consumed by the fire of lusts of the body and has no fear of death, since death brings forth the final liberation of the soul from the body. plotinus, then submits: ―so the soul when it is purified becomes form and formative power, altogether bodiless and intellectual and entirely belonging to the divine, whence beauty springs and all that is akin to it. soul, then, when it is raised to the level of intellect increases in beauty‖ (bk, 6(5),15-20). as the soul ascends upwards toward the intellect in the plotinus‘ cosmology, it increases in beauty. this is because, ―intellect and the things of intellect are its beauty, its own beauty and not another‘s, since only then [when it is perfectly conformed to intellect] is it truly soul‖ (bk, 6(5),15-20). since the soul becomes truly the soul when it conforms to the intellect, the soul, thus, becomes truly beautiful when it units with the universal soul, in the intellect. to this effect, gerson (1994:212), maintains: ―just as the desire for good is aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 the desire to be associated with intellect in contemplating forms, so beauty is that aspect of intelligible reality that produces delight in the contemplator when contemplation is occurring.‖ beyond the conformity with the intellect, the soul becomes not only beautiful but also good, when it units with the one, god. by god here, plotinus‘s god should be understood. which is the ultimate first principle of reality, which because it is the absolute, is the absolute good and the absolute beauty. on the contrary, a soul that is not tending in union with the one, becomes ugly and evil. note, by evil, plotinus means a privation of the good, and by ugly he means a privation of the beautiful. now god, the one, is the absolute beauty from which comes the intellect, which is beauty. the soul is given beauty by intellect. hence it is the shaping of the soul that makes everything beautiful. the soul, which is a form can and is what grasps and masters the form of the beautiful in all things said to be beautiful. in fact, the things that are beautiful exist because they have forms and they are spoken of as beautiful by the form of the human person which is the soul (see bk, 6(7),35ff). having established, what beauty, and how the soul can be beautiful and how the soul makes everything it grasps beautiful, plotinus makes a passionate appeal to seek the truly beautiful, the one, god. since, the one, is the remote source of all forms which is the cause of the beautiful, the most sublime experience of the beautiful is union with the one. he exhorts that the seeking of this beauty is worth more than any other attainment in life. hence for him, failure in life lays not in the inability to attain physical or perceptive beauties, nor socio-political beauties. it lays rather in the failure to grasp and unite with the absolute beauty, which is the one. for a true lover of the one gives away every attainment in order to be united with the one, god (see bk, 6(7),35ff). this kind of person, no doubt must be spiritual minded not carnal; must seek the things above not the things below; must search for the good interiorly not exteriorly. hence, gerson (1994:216), expounding this point, maintains that plotinus by this position: … describes and promotes qualifiedly a world-renouncing conversion…. let us remember that this call to holiness…. is located in the middle of a discussion of beauty. this remarkable association of the religious with the aesthetic is not of course uniquely plotinian. but it is to say naturally plotinian. the soul of such a person must be ready to undergo a necessary training, ―first of all to look at beautiful ways of life: then at beautiful works, not those which the arts produce, but the works of men who have a name for goodness: then look at the souls of the people who produce the beautiful works‖ (bk, 6(9),1-10). with personal cultivation and training of this sort, the flight of the soul to its lover, intellect, becomes possible and easy. for the intellect, is the beauty par excellence, and from the intellect, the soul aims at union with onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … the source of beauty, the one. only the souls which are akin and are like the one, can grasp and be beautiful as the one. for as he posits, ―no eye ever saw the sun without becoming sun-like, nor can a soul see beauty without becoming beautiful‖ (bk, 6(9),25 35). what it implies is that one must necessarily become godlike in order to be united with the one, god and become beautiful. and the path to godlikeness is the ascent of the soul to the intellect, where lies the form of beauty, by the ascent to the intellect to union with the one. 5. conclusion this paper focused on plotinus‘ notion of beauty as the ecstatic experience of the soul, by arguing that sense-perception is not considered essential for the grasp of beauty in plotinus. it engaged in a reflection of plotinus‘ notion or conception of beauty as it concerns the spiritual transformation of the human person. that is to say, what beauty does to the human person, how beauty affects and transforms the human person, and by extension how the beautiful soul could transform the world. it emphasizes that for plotinus beauty is not just aesthetical, it is more so a spiritual experience in the soul. it is the transcending upward movement of the soul in union with the one, through the contemplation of the form, beauty, in the intellect. now, one may ask: of what relevance is plotinus‘ philosophy of beauty to the world today? this paper contends that plotinus‘ notion of beauty as ecstatic experience of the soul is relevant now, not only for the transformation of the individual human person, but also for the transformation of the world today. of course, when individuals are transformed, the world by logical necessity will be transformed since it is individual human persons that make up the world as a social reality. the world today epistemologically speaking, is a scientifically led world. people today seek empirically based fact; thus, truth is becoming equal to fact and knowledge equal to science. our world, led by this epistemologically attitude has brought enormously unparalleled economic and technological advancements when compared to any other period in human history. the metaphysics that seem to support this epistemological disposition is fundamentally materialistic and/or physicalistic. the natural consequence of such metaphysical dispositions, coupled with capitalistic economic pursuit, is atheism or at best agnosticism or secularism. in this kind of world, religion is either killed, suppressed or manipulated. in africa, and most other parts of developing areas of the world, religion is getting more and more manipulated. while in the developed parts, religion is getting more and more directly or indirectly suppressed. as the world becomes more scientifically advanced and economically richer, the souls of men and women are becoming more and more impoverished and thirsty for truth, beauty and tranquility. the interior part, the soul, of the human person can only be cultivated and aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 guided by the teachings of religious masters and/or the teachings of wise persons, generally called philosophers. religion and philosophy take upon themselves the responsibility to guide the spiritual, intellectual and moral lives of people. they also cultivate the soul to transcend the world of sense-perception and encounter the transcendent beyond. but in the event when more and more people are becoming areligious, secularized or atheistic, the souls of many are panting for a means to satisfy their longing for the sublime and for the order of their interior being. it is little wonder that there is revival of philosophical discourses in most developing parts of the world. it is interesting to see a wave of revival in the ancient and hellenistic philosophies in the west and the increase intensity in the study and research of classical chinese philosophy and buddhist philosophy in the east. many non-religious people are going to stoicism, neo platonism, epicureanism, confucianism and buddhism, as guides to cultivate their interior life and spirituality. more and more, it is becoming clearer to many that the problem of the world today is not merely socio-political or scientific, it is rather, greatly aesthetical, or more precisely meta-aesthetical. there is a role that religion plays in human consciousness, which is a constant reminder to the human person on the transient nature of this world and of the value and aspiration towards the transcendental. but with secularization and atheism overwhelming many parts of the west and with the manipulation and commercialization of religion in africa, aesthetical awakening has become a central option for the salvation of human interiority. this paper posits plotinus‘ conception of beauty as not only one of the answers to the question on how to fill the lacuna created by the demise of religious sublimity and awareness in many. but is the most persuasive and transforming way for individual spiritual transformation and by extension the transformation of the world. the person who follows the path of plotinus‘ activities of the soul in the grasp of beauty, becomes a beautiful soul in itself. the ―beautiful soul‖ of plotinus, is always longing for and desires to remain in the ecstatic experience of beauty and union with the one. it does not attach itself to goods and honours of this world of sense-perception. because it has a beautiful soul, it is well-ordered and endeavours to make everything it encounters ordered. the beautiful soul puts forms in everything that is formless, by so doing making the ugly beautiful. when the souls of men and women of this world are converted, and transformed into the beautiful soul of plotinus, this world will be definitely be more peaceful, just and livable. therefore, this paper is a reminder of the place of philosophical reflection in our world today and a call to visit or revisit the richness in the philosophy of plotinus, a man who spent his life desiring to have a beautiful soul. onyeukaziri a philosophical reflection on plotinus concept of … references aristotle (1984). the complete works of aristotle (vol i&ii), jonathan barnes (ed.), new jersey: princeton university press. cicero (1884). cicero‘s tusculan disputations, andrew p. peabody (trans.), boston: little, brown, and company. david j. yount (2014). plotinus the platonist: a comparative account of plato and plotinus’ metaphysics, london: bloomsbury publishing plc. lloyd p. gerson (ed) (2010). the cambridge history of philosophy in late antiquity (vol. 1), cambridge: cambridge university press. lloyd p. gerson (1994). plotinus, london: routledge. plato (1997). plato complete works, john m. cooper and d.s. hutchinson (eds), indiana: hackett publishing company, inc. porphyry (1966). plotinus ennead, a. h. armstrong (translator), cambridge, harvard university press. 1 economic impact of covid 19 and the role of e-governance in combacting covid 19 in nigeria ezeobele, izuchukwu anthony department of philosophy lagos, state university, lagos. anselem ikenna odo department of educational foundations philosophy of education unit nasarawa state university, keffi. +234813485726, anselmikenna4us@gmail.com nwoha petermary o. tansian university, umunya, anambra state. pito4us@gmail.com 07068999414 abstract in this advanced era, information technology should promote a knowledge based society. e -governance stands for electronic governance, a unification of information and communication technology (ict) in all the operations to augment the potentials of the government to satisfy the requirements of the public. the imperativeness of this research is hinged on the role of e-governance in combating covid 19 and for sustainable development. it examined the major factors to be considered on egovernance implementation, challenges involved in e governance implementation in nigerian public service. this study therefore, using analytic method seeks to examine how egovernance can help in combating covid 19 in nigeria and the extent at which covid 19 pandemic has affected the economy of the nation. this research discovers that a lot of harm has been done to nigerian economy as a result of covid 19 pandemic. it summits that if some factors are properly considered, egovernance implementation in nigeria is a possibility. the paper recommends that the incumbent leadership should shun corruption and prioritize in the welfare of her citizens by considering the factors of egovernance implementation in nigeria in order to make egovernance implementation a reality. keywords: e-governance, economy, covid-19, combating and nigeria. introduction e-governance is a unification of information and communication technologies (ict) in all the operations to augment the potentials of the government to satisfy the requirement of the local public. the concept of e-governance has been broadly defined especially as it relates to the public sector. in fact, researchers vary in their definitions of what e-governance is all about (shilubane, 2001, budhiraja 2003,ojo 2014). according to shilubane (2001), e-governance is simply the use of the information communication technology (ict) to carry out public services, that is to say, the use of internet to ensure that services are delivered in a much more convenient, customer oriented and cost effective manner. budhiraja (2003) define e-governance as the application of information technology to the process of government functioning in order to achieve simple, moral, accountable, responsive mailto:anselmikenna4us@gmail.com 2 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 and transparent (smart) governance. in a similar vein, ojo (2014) also sees e book governance as the application of information technology (ict) by the government to enhance accountability, create awareness and ensure transparency in the management of the government businesses. he also state that, itcan be seen as a potential strategy of government through which their activities can be showcased to the public. ayo (2014) defined e-governance as the governing of the states or country using ict in executing government businesses. from the definitions so far, it can be deduced that e-governance is simply the use of ict in operations of government businesses, put it in another way, it is the shift from the traditional methods of carrying out government activities which is mainly hierarchical, liner and on way to the use of internet which enable the public seek information at their own convenience not really having to visit office in person or when government office is open (agochukwu and lawrence2015). egovernance is noteworthy because it minimizes corruption, enhances transparency, increases convenience, increase gross domestic products (gdp). growth, allows a way for the citizens to be involved directly with their country, reduces the overall cost and broadens the speed of the government. through an efficient e-governance system, government increases the amount and quality of information and services delivered to the local public by using ict simple, economical and productive way. however, the declaration of covid 19 as a public health emergency by the world health organization necessitated a country across the globe to implement response and integration measures. government needs to make full use of digital technologies to confront the covid 19 pandemic and address a white range of pandemic related issues, according to another new policies brief issued by the un department of economic and social affairs. the pandemic is compelling government and societies to turn towards digital technologies to respond to the crisis and increasingly, is requiring government to adopt an open government approach and to use digital communication channels to provide reliable formation on global and national covid 19 development. with lock down and other social distancing measures in effect in many countries and with more people relying on the internet for information and advice, government are being urged to deploy effective digital technologies to curtail the outbreak(mohamed, 2010). government information has focused on information about the outbreak, travel restrictions, practical guidance on protection, and government response. government as first custodian of data related to covid 19 has also started publishing statistics that include the total number of cases in a country total facilities as well reporting of cases by jurisdictions. governments have also design new app and services to help in the fight against covid 19 , to facilitate services such as delivering food and other essential items to those most in need by optimizing the entire supply chain via digital government service (abdulrazaq, 2015).some member of states recoded an increase in the usage of online services 3 ezeobele economic impact of covid 19 and the … such as digital id and digital signature, due to the spikes in applications for unemployment and other social benefits. world wild e-book government and the covid 19 pandemic e-government is an interconnected system in which the government interacts with citizens and provides augmented services to them through electronic applications. with the assistance of ict, e-governance has been implemented and digitalization opportunities in the world are being revolutionized (khan et al. 2020). e governance furnishes a rare possibility for government to increase identity record keeping and expand the ability to share social and economic results. based on survey, 80 units of 1000 republics particular actions to certify egovernments, e book services utilized by the highly sensitive portions of their populace in 2018, which was a marked increase from less than 30 percent in 2012. there is much importance for mobile e-government facilities to provide social services such as distance education and health which will have a positive effect on an individual’s daily life. these services are particularly important for rural populations because, they tend to live in poorer conditions (darker et al. 2018). worldwide, there are currently estimated 1.1billion individuals who are surviving in neediness, are refugees or migrants are living in agrarian societies or are part of ignoble clusters without a legitimate identity. therefore, several sdg5 sdg16 refer to peak, justice, and strong institutions and sdg 16.9 refers to providing a legal identity to all individuals including birth registration seek to ameliorate these issues by 2030.growing financial institutions and avoiding corruption and fraud can serve to improve the economic situation of individual, while providing social services can help furnish legal identities to these ignoble clusters. together with the full advantage of connecting the quality and speed of mobile connections must also be augmented. moreover, the rapid increase in cell. phone acceptance in developing markets is furnishing support in ameliorating the connecting divide. to gain advantage by shifting higher volume of information to cell phone system, the speed and network quality must be improved. approximately 85percent of the global populace currently use the 3g network, which is the minimal speed for smart data functions. moreover, the upcoming network generation that is 4g cell. phone wide band contributions are lagging behind. the growing variety of government facilities that are furnished online makes digital divides refer to the gap between demographics and regions that have access to modern ict and those that do not or have restricted access. this technology can include telephones, televisions, personal computers and the internet (options et al. 2019).governments may unintentionally generate fresh electronic divides by eliminating offline access for services that can utilize online methods, an action that encourages digital first method. there for, online services are being favored as countries move forward to accept more quality and availability. 4 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 ma(2019), found that online payment systems are more efficient and economical than traditional payment system. the entire payment process can be done using mobile phones and the business can be more efficiently, conveniently, and secretly allocate money online with emails address. to create a simultaneous payment solution, the network only requires a bank and credit card. paypal is the most popular online payment system around the world. it deals with 26 currencies from 193 markets. there are 137 million paypal accounts and on daily basis, there are 8 million transactions. during covid 19 lock down and other restrictions, paypal users have beenable to make payments while quarantine in their houses when the banks were closed. for many people, the only options was to make payment through the paypal app because,. paypal provides payment solutions around the globe. offnotes, paypal provides payment solutions around the globe. health care providers are at high risk for contacting covid 19, free triage telehealth assessment has been offered by health institutions of many countries. telegraph assessments are provided to portions by a mobile app or website that contains a short survey about the patience current conditions. moreover, this survey contains questions about the patience eye, travel, history and symptoms. the patience may be asked to connect with the digital health care providers or visit a mobile testing site/hospital for covid 19(abdulrazaq, 2015). buoy health (2020a,b)and lark (2020a, b) are websites with health focused chart bots and can also provide help to interpret an individual’s symptoms and propose the appropriate next step(abdulrazaq,2015). furthermore, to ensure continuity of care, the survey results are integrated with electronic medical records. in singapore, the “trace together"mobile app is currently used to assist in covid 19 contact tracing. this app uses blue tooth technology to determine whether the person has had any close contact with covid 19 diagnosed patience. siva health (2020a,b) deported assistant (2020) have provided artificial intelligence systems that offer information and help the patients without smart assistance such as google home and amazon. these interventions enabled health care providers to respond to any patients need without entering their rooms and reduce their exposure to respiratory secretions. a rapid diagnostic" drive through screening" kits developed in korea has the potentials to diagnose covid 19 infected patients in the early stage of the disease. this eventually reduces the fatality rate and prevents transmission, an innovative methods that allows thousands of people to be tested daily. the new diagnostic kits reduced test time from 24 to six hours by employing the real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and was rapidly approved by korea centers for disease control and prevention (kcdc) and ministry of food and drug safety (mfdg). a kit is usually approved within 1 year from development, allowing it to be quickly applied in the field (administration of china, 2020). during the covid 19 pandemic, the implementation of digital health has aimed to reduce the risk or avoiding the transmission to medical service providers. the above mentioned technology 5 ezeobele economic impact of covid 19 and the … applications have the potentials to reduce transmission risk by abating physical contacts among patience and healthcare providers. moreover, digital health involvement enables medical service providers to tackle the global pandemic even when working remotely or practicing self isolation measures. factors of e-governance implementation in nigeria without doubt, there are a lot of influences which contribute positive outcome of e-governance in nigeria. nevertheless, heeks, (2001) observes that the major objectives of e-governance are to improve government processes (e administration) and connect citizens (e-citizens and e-services) and build external interactions (e-society) (heeks, 2001). despite these objectives,some factors to be considered in the e-governance implementations are: i. making and implementing decisions ii. proper leadership iii. putting in place an organizational arrangements iv. ensuring resources and funding v. establishing accountability and measuring success, and skilled staffs vi. better delivery of government services to citizens vii. improve interactions with business and industry viii. citizens’ empowerment through access to information and more efficient government management are the factors it is worthy of note that e-governance is not only the computerization of a government system but a belief in the ability of technology to achieve high level of improvement in various areas of government thus transforming the nature of politics and the relations between government and citizens (doda, 2006, p. 1). challenges of e-governance implementation in nigerian public service the concept of public service differs from country to country but in this case, the concern is what it means in nigeria. section 318 of the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of nigeria as amended defines the public service as the service of the federation in any capacity in respect of the government of the federation and includes services as: 1. clerk or other staff of the national assembly or of each house of the national assembly 2. member of staff of the supreme court, the court of appeal, the federal capital territory abuja, the sharia court of appeal of fct, the customary court of appeal fct, or other courts established for the federation by this constitution and by act of the national assembly. 3. member or staffs of any commission or authority established for the federation by this constitution or by act of national assembly. 4. member or staff of any commission or authority. 5. staff of any area council. 6 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 6. staff of any educational institution established or financed principally by the government of the federation. 7. staff of any statutory corporation established by an act of the national assembly. 8. staff of any company or enterprises in which the government of the federation owns controlling shares or interest. 9. members or officers of the armed forces of the federation or the nigeria police force or other government security agencies established by law. a lot have been said as regards the benefits of e-governance implementation in nigeria or what it has to offer. scholars have mentioned that when e-governance is implemented, there will be accountability, awareness, and transparency in the management of governmental business will be ensured (ojo, 2014,p.79). unfortunately, this is not the case in nigeria. however, we are not ruling out the tendencies of any policy of government but we are of the view that there are things that must be taken care of before we expect so much from the policy of e governance in nigerian public service. this is also in line with the assertion of dode (2007, p. 382) thus: the e-governance practice is bound to meet with strong opposition from the bureaucratic quarters of the policy. by this we mean the over bloated public services whose members will analyze this practice as a deliberate attempt by the government to throw majority of their members out of their jobs. majority of the public servants are thus likely to use their position to frustrate the effective application of e-governance in nigerian. the will definitely dislike a system that will reduce to the minimum, face to face contact between citizens and the government services providers. however, the e-governance implementation in the nigeria public services is accompanied with many challenges. according to abbdeb -fattah &galal-edeen (2008), the major challenge of e-governance in the nigerian public service is lack of trained and qualified personnel to handle and operate it's infrastructures. they further state that due to the high cost associated with the procurement and training of the public servants with ict skills, government sometimes feel reluctant in the actual implementation of the e-governance in the public service. the effective and successful implementation of e-governance requires expert to coordinate and operate the ict related infrastructures because where there are no competent personnel to handle its infrastructure; it will be useless to procure the infrastructures (ayo &ekong, 2008). infrastructural deficit: infrastructural deficit is another serious challenge to e governance implementation in nigerian. there is serious deficit in the level of infrastructure that is placed in the rural areas compared to the urban areas despite the rural areas accounting for more than 60 percent of the population. most of the telecoms base stations are situated in the urban areas leaving the rural areas with little or no access to telecommunication facilities. although the tele-density rate of nigeria is high which is almost reaching as high as 90 percent. this is an 7 ezeobele economic impact of covid 19 and the … indication that almost every nigeria owns a hand phone. however, e-government goes beyond the use of internet to be able to access government electronic services. the level of internet usage in nigeria is not encouraging due to low level of penetration most especially in the rural areas where education is low. based on the 2011 study by the nigerian communication commission, only 17 percent of the rural communities had internet facilities compared to 79 percent in the urban centers. out of the17 percent only 11 have access broad band (itu news 292). digital divide is also another impediment to a successful implementation of e governance in nigerian public service. digital divide is the difference in ict access and usage between different regions that shares similar characteristics. in explaining digital divide in nigeria, it can be perceived as the difference in the accessibility and usage of ict service between the rural populations and the urban population. digital divide in nigeria is caused by low literacy, poverty infrastructural gap, and high cost of internet connectivity. low ict skilled manpower: ict education is another issue of importance here. the director of nic in the interview highlighted the fact that majority of the staffs in the ministry do not have the required level of knowledge in ict to carry out the task of e-services. thus, the very few with ict knowledge are overburdened with huge tasks. incessant power failure: the major technical challenge disrupting the full success of e-governance implementation in nigeria is epileptic power supply. power blackout is a regular phenomenon in most nigerian cities, towns, and villages with negative impact on the robustness of ict. most telecommunications base stations are equipped with power generating plants s an alternative source of power for these equipments. the cost of procuring these generating plants maintenance and fueling them have added to the operation cost of these companies and as such, the financial burden will be borne by the final consumers. theft and vandalization of ict equipment: another setback to the progress of ict infrastructural development in nigeria is the deft and the vandalization of the internet and telecommunication facilities most especially in the conflict prone areas of the north east and southgeopolitical zone,. for example, in 2012,the largest telecommunication company in nigeria, mtn nigeria recorded more than 70 cases of facility vandalization (daily independent 2013). and on the national level, the country records more than 1000 cases of vandalization every year (hamanipo, 2013).the security of assets possesses a serious challenge due to the volatile security statues of the country. moreover, the perpetrators of the act are mostly left unpunished due to lack of law that protects these infrastructures. recently, a motion was raised in 2013 in the national assembly for the passage of the telecoms infrastructural protection act that will seek to prosecute the perpetrators of vandalization (vanguard, 2013). 8 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 recommendations it is important at this juncture to suggest what can be done to achieve a successful implementation of e-governance in nigerian public service. based on the issues identified as implementation in nigerian public service, the following recommendations are advanced: government ministries department agencies should set up e-governance implementation committee who will work out modalities for the effective implementation of the concept with performance evaluation units, establish to evaluate the success and failures in its target as well as feedback mechanism to report implementation effectiveness. the federal government should establish ministry of ict affairs to set up ict implementation framework evaluation units in each of the ministries and the parastatals with the permanent secretaries as the head. the ict ministry will liaise with the implementation committee at the various ministries including state ministries to evaluate performance as well as feedback to help in its effectiveness. nigerian public service ministries department and agencies must show a high level of e-readiness in other operations. all that is needed must be put in place by the government especially that which is within their capacity. for instance ensure that all offices are equipped with functional computers, employ highly skilled personnel in ict provisions of continuous training of the personnel to keep them informed on how best to utilize e governance in engendering effective service delivery among others. conclusions however, the challenges have been identified and the research recommends that government and stakeholders in the ict sector will quickly find quick and lasting solutions to them. for adequate solution to the challenges. the paper, therefore conclude that e-governance service delivery will lead to transparency and accountability in government businesses and operations for nigerian public service. but it has to contend with the challenges to the successful implementation of e-governance in the country public sector. 9 ezeobele economic impact of covid 19 and the … references agochukwu, d.a, lawrence, i. e., (2015). "e-governance and it's implementation challenges in nigerian public service "retrieved from www.journals.univ.or.>articles>view. para 2 abdulrazaq, k. a.(2015),"challenges of e-governance implementation in nigerian pubic service " retrieved from www.researchgate.net>publication>33...para 5. mohamed, e. (2010)," challenges of e-governance implementation in nigerian public service "retrieved from www.tuengri.com>...para 4. administration of china (2020). worldwide e-governance and the covid 19 pandemic "retrieved from www.alm.nih.gov>pmc7644414, para 8 olatokewa, a., (2020), "economic repercussions of coronavirus pandemic on nigerians ", retrieved from www. pulitzer.org>stories>economicr-ve.para3. gustova,. d. (2017)." the impact of e-government strategy on economic growth and social development ",(doctoral dissertation). schimitter, p. g., defining, explaining and exploring the elusive concepts of the governance "fudan journal of the humanities and social sciences, p.547. khan, m. k. & zubair, d. (2020), societal, e-readiness for e-governance adaptability in pakistan. pakistan journal of commerce & social sciences, p. 273 299 shkarlut,. s, oliychenko l. during, m. ditkovsta, m. zhovtuk, v. (2020)" comparative analysis of the best practices in e-government implementation and use of this experience be developing countries" administrative management public, p. 118-136. my, y., (2019), the international conference on cyber security intelligence: study on risk and analyse the preventive measures, we-chat pay, p. 1195-1199. adamolekum, l. (2002), "public administration in africa., ibadan:spectrum bus limited. ojo, j. s. (2014), e-governance: an imperative for sustainable grassroots development in nigeria. journal of public administration and policy research, vol.6 p. 77-89. http://www.journals.univ.or/ http://www.researchgate.net/ http://www.tuengri.com/ http://www.alm.nih.gov/ http://www/ 10 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 dode, r. o. (2007),prospects of e-government implementation in nigeria, first international conference on theory and practice of electronic governance, macao, china, p. 380-383. ayo, c. k. & ekong, u. (2008),e-voting implementation in nigeria: prospects and challenges. proceedings of the 8th european conference to on e-government. hamanipo (2013), south eastern nigeria suffer most from telecoms vandalism, retrieved from www.researchgate.net.>publication >29. http://www.researchgate.net/ aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 abstract man is naturally a social animal and consequent upon this fact he lives in community and is thus guided by ethical principles that direct his conduct towards living a better life. since he lives in a society there comes the obvious need of electing leaders that will be piloting the affairs of the community so as not to relapse into anarchy. such election being a human exercise has equally to be guided by moral principles which will ensure that leaders with impeccable character and moral probity are voted in mindless of political loyalty and affiliation. therefore, the welfare of the state has to be the guiding force. only in this way can government by the worst (kakistocracy) be thrown overboard. this research aims establishing the necessity of graduating to meta-politics that places high premium on seeking for candidates with the political correctness that benefits everyone regardless of political, religious, ethnic affiliation. the researcher will employ descriptive methodology to expose the necessity of injecting ethical principles in the political process. through the analytic approach the research will explore into the moral recklessness involved in political process. based on that, metapolitics will be recommended as a way forward because it transcends the ordinariness of political engagement. in the end, the researcher will emphasize on the importance of seeing beyond mere political loyalty and thus repositioning it on the foundation of rationality rather than self-interest. keywords: ethics, political loyalty, kakistocracy, machiavellian tactics, metapolitics introduction politics in nigeria has experienced and continues to experience a chequered history. time and time again it has assumed different dimensions: the good, the bad and the ugly. but all the same, man cannot not be a political animal. it is in his nature. by the mere fact of living in a society, there comes the natural tendency of have a divide between the leaders and the led, the rulers and the ruled. this stratification into classes gradually begins to generate tension especially when instead of the electing the men of character and conscience into leadership positions, the worst and gang of power-mongers bulldoze their way into the assumption of power. kukah (2014) making a classical presentation of nigeria educational system ended up reflecting the woeful condition of the nigeria political class thus: “the smartest students pass with first class and get admissions to medical and engineering schools. the second-class students get mbas and llbs to manage the firstclass students. the third-class students enter politics and rule both the first and secondethical repositioning of loyalty in nigerian politics: towards elimination of kakistocracy evaristus ifeanacho, ph.d department of religion and international relations nnamdi azikiwe university, awka 85 class students. the failures enter the underworld of crime and control the politicians and the businesses. and best of all those who didn't attend school become prophets and everyone follow them.” the resultant effect could be wanton oppression, flagrant nepotism, shameless godfatherism and scandalous ethnic posture. when one class begins to lord it over others or when the law that is supposed to guide and guard them towards harmonious co-existence is flaunted with impunity, such impunity will go a long way to birth other attendant evils. however, in the bid to realize their evil machinations, religion and ethnic divide are roped in as instruments of divide and rule. unfortunately, even in this ugly turn of events, there is still a blindfolded political loyalty that pretends not to read the handwriting on the wall on account of the fact that their palms are regularly greased and their freedom trampled upon. it needs brazen courage in such a situation to champion a metapolitics that looks for goodness founded on salus populi suprema lex esto (the welfare of the people is the highest law) and political uprightness devoid of any political affiliation, religious bias, and tribal sentiment. it is pertinent therefore to explore into how best political correctness could be given an upper place in political loyalty? then, we investigate into the necessity of passing every political process through the crucible of ethical principles. political loyalty loyalty is an existential given in every human community; either it is experienced directly or indirectly. whichever way it is, the bottom-line is that it has to be strongly founded on proper evaluation via critical reasoning. therefore, loyalty be it political or otherwise has to be arrived at not through mere sheepish following of the crowd or through susceptibility to financial bait but through a strictly reasoned decision; otherwise the tendency will be to relapse into slavery. according to ejenebo (2023), loyalty has been defined as a strong feeling of support or allegiance. in other words, to be loyal to a person is to give support to that person. the key word here is support. if you support a person just because you don't want to disagree with him, then you are his slave not a loyal person. support of a person within the context of loyalty must be situated in the overall good of the person being supported. when loyalty becomes blind support, then one has crossed over to the realm of slavery. loyalty has primarily to be directed to one's own country, state and individual. since the nation has priority because of its macrocosmic dimension, the rest are subsumed into it. when the nation progresses based on the loyalty accorded it, surely the state and the individual will benefit from it. whereas when loyalty to the individual be he politician or any other public figure, supplants that of the nation, the resultant effect is that the nation is abandoned to its fate. in the words of the american writer mark twain, “loyalty to the country always. loyalty to the government when it deserves it.” besides loyalty to the country, most often loyalty to the godfather, the political aspirant, the governor, or whomsoever, is always based on some conditions that will profit the godfather and make the loyalist subservient to him. however, loyalty worthy of the name in the political context has to be founded on the political leader's shared vision of the state and how the state is to be moved forward in the progressive track. surely, leaders who express such vision most often secure the greatest loyalty from their followers. this is based on the fact that oke (2022) enthused that, “their personal interests became 86 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june enmeshed with a shared vision so much that they could still be remembered and still lionized long after their demise. any mention of their names in any gathering still invokes raw emotion and empathy. for those leaders, the political office was not sacrosanct. their power was derived from their political conviction and the sheer number and enthusiasm of their followers.” therefore, there is need for loyalty to be tested and trusted and not to be exhibited without a solid foundation. unfortunately, in the words of olaoye (2022): no politician ever wants his loyalty tested. although they all profess loyalty to the people, we know that their loyalty is mostly to themselves and their interests. thus, if we ever want to get the best out of our leaders, the best invocation is the one that calls for their loyalty to be tested…. loyalty is a two-way thing. the followers are loyal to a leader who is loyal to them. but the overriding principle is that both the leader and the led are loyal to a set of binding principles. according to oke (2022a), loyalty becomes strained when a group, political association or party revolves around a particular (charismatic) personality with no shared vision or ideology other than the intention to either remain in or wrest power from an incumbent. such loyalty is ephemeral because it is most often founded on material support. in the actual fact, a party needs to have a set of distinctive beliefs and principles to serve as a propaganda tool for its members. without core beliefs, betrayal becomes ingrained in the party hierarchy. this will always be the rule rather than the exception. going forward, therefore, nigerian political leaders must learn one crucial lesson: loyalty is earned, not bought. when it is earned it perdures. but when it is bought it easily wanes. it is easier to betray a man than it is to betray his cause. for it to last it must be founded on formidable ethical principles. morality: inner meaning morality etymologically is derived from both greek and latin. for the former, it is “ethos” and the latter “mores;” both meaning 'custom.' custom literally connotes peoples way of life – mannerism and dressing, beliefs and so on. if morality then is restricted to custom, it means confining morality to the domain of relativism, because as many as there are societies, almost so many are there customs. that being the case, we have to release morality from the shackles of custom by giving it an all-inclusive stance. that will make moral principles the same everywhere. morality per se is abstract and in potency; therefore it needs a rational being to actualize it. we can talk of rational being without morality, but we cannot talk of morality without a rational being. it will then be an ethical impossibility to subtract rational beings from the realm of morality. both have to unite for a fruitful production. morality deals with how human acts relate to their norm. without mincing words glenn (2022) states that, “it is that quality of a human act whereby it measures up to what it should be as a step towards the objective last end of human act, or fails so to measure up.” measuring up to what should be” and “failing to measure up” signify rightness and wrongness of an action respectively. it is the ability to decipher the goodness and badness of an act. glenn (2022:10) put it clearly when he said that, “morality is that quality of human act which leads us to call some actions good and some evil”. as a matter of fact, morality is intrinsically embedded in the act itself. it is not determined 87 ifeanacho ethical repositioning of loyalty in nigerian politics: towards ... by external denomination. moral justifiability of a human act is an unavoidable quality of an act that satisfies the three determinants of moral act. for a human act to be moral, three fundamentals have to be considered. they are: “the act itself or what a man does, the motive, or why he does it; the circumstances, or how, where, when etc. he does it.” (fagothey 2000:145) a human act that fails any of these conditions can be called any other thing apart from a moral act. that it is why it is clearly stipulated that only those who are mentally-balanced are guided by morality. the mentally deranged fellows are exceptions to this rule since they act unconsciously. though moral action involves individual choice, it should not be precipitated to the suitability of individual liking. individual convenience should not blind us or force us to relegate morality to the background. morality should not be tainted with subjectivism, for if subjectivism is universalized, it boils down to beckoning hobbesian state of nature to take the stage. there will no more be any moral justifiability or unjustifiability of human act. therefore, it will entail individuating morality which will never augur well with human race. advisedly, scruton (1982) quoting kant writes “every ration being must so act as if he were by his maxims in every case a legislating member of the universal kingdom of ends” (p.71). morality then is unconditional, all-binding, obligatory and inspired by reason. it is not two-pronged, but straightforward. either you choose it or you lose it. it is the autonomy of the will which is imperative; as opposed to heteronomy of the will which is conditional. moreover, aristotle consolidated morality by making happiness the summum bonum (highest good) of human conduct. in fact, aristotle (2012) made it abundantly clear that, “the only ultimate moral rule is one enjoining us to maximize the sum of happiness.” happiness is different from pleasure. it is not the immediate aim of every action but only an ultimate aim. this foreshadows the teleological nature of his moral theory. in sum, although there are many notions of morality, it is conspicuously out-of-place to cling to ethical subjectivism. this is because it makes morality less a general principle. if do-as-you-feel becomes the order of the day, great will be the disorder in the world. in fact, morality is not tribalistic, neither is it guided by favoritism; indeed it is no 'respecter' of person. rather, it judges essentially the rightness and wrongness of all actions that are truly human like political actions. political power vis-à-vis morality power taken generally touches many aspects of life. for parson (1970) it is understood as the general capacity of a social system “to get things done in the interest of collective goals” (p.181). it has more to do with “ability, capacity, virtue, potency, faculty, process of change of becoming operative.” (encyclopedia britannica, p.697) in biology for instance we talk of power of hearing, in physics, the power of accommodation, in economics we hear of purchasing power, in international politics; we talk of super-power, and so on. however, when we talk of power in the political context it “would in the words of arendt (1970) “mean the consent of the governed that is mobilized for collective goals, that is, their readiness to support the political leadership” (p.4-5). “man's influence over man as 88 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june manifested in government or the state” (encyclopedia britannica, p.85). arendt (1970) opines that “power corresponds to the human ability not just to act but to act in concert. power is never the property of an individual; it belongs to a group and remains in existence only so long as the group keeps together. when we say of somebody that he is “in power” we actually refer to his being empowered by a certain number of people to act in their behalf” (p.44). it was albert camus who unreservedly said that “we cannot do without dominating others or being served.” even the man of the bottom rung still has his wife or child. if he is a bachelor, controls his dog. so everyone is a ruler in his own small kingdom and accountable for it to whomever it may be. the king is a ruler over his subjects, a husband in his family, the woman also has her own power in the family, even the servant is not left out, he rules over the meager properties entrusted to his care. each is questionable for the things or people within his area of jurisdiction; such is the diversity of power. power portrays itself as the proverbial hydra, spreading its tentacle to every nook and corner within the reach of its piercing tentacles. even the houseboy politicizes over the properties he is placed in-charge of; which one is to come more closely to his umbrella of protection. the one that appeals to him enjoys his favor more. we at times cast blames on the rulers of the state for manipulating the gullible masses to achieve their own designs. but when we are placed at the helm of affairs, we observe that we are not innocent of the same mischief we condemned. ours may be even more drastic. be that as it may, a good government has to be guided by the common salve“salus populi suprema lex esto” (the welfare of the people is the highest law). so, political leadership ipso facto has to be for the good of the entire citizenry and not for the benefit of the privileged few at the expense of the majority. aristotle (2021) succinctly said that, “in the state, the good aimed at is just; and that means what is for the benefit of the whole community” (p.207). we seem to have given a wait-a-bit wave to morality. this is because all we have so far said concerning politics have to be narrowed down to morality so as to sift the good qualities from the bad ones. syllogistically put: all human acts are governed by morality; politics is a human act, therefore politics is governed by morality. the validity of this syllogism is highly incontestable and incontrovertible. politics has to undergo the scourging scrutiny of morality before it is published as good or bad. morality is the parameter by which the goodness or badness of an action is measured. politics manifests itself through the human agents. remove human agents, politics vanishes. since human agents are the instruments of politics, the presence of morality becomes an inevitable condition. to divorce morality from politics is to jettison politics from the realm of being a human act which is totally impossible because the major players in politics are human beings and not animals. therefore, to divest morality from politics will be tantamount to denying politics the aroma with which it is spiced which is the use of reason. when that is done, the government by the worst is willy-nilly instituted. kakistocracy: inner meaning kakistocracy is derived from kakistos (worst) which is the superlative of the adjective kakos meaning bad and the comparative is kakiov; and kratia refers to power. 89 ifeanacho ethical repositioning of loyalty in nigerian politics: towards ... kakistocracy is “government by the worst element of a society,” was coined in 1829 by thomas love peacock. kakistocracy (literally, government by the worst) proliferates in weak and disorganized political systems that repel the talented and attract the incompetent and most soiled. it is really the case of the incompetent in power. obviously, sometimes they come together producing a government that is both criminal and useless. when the two coincide, the kleptocracy and the kakistocracy feedback on each other. in fact, kakistocracy though fell into disuse formerly has of recent begun to assume the centre stage in some countries like nigeria where in the words of ornestein (2017) the most inept and cringeworthy kind of government is in existence. its trademark is raw ineptitude, corruption, disruptive governance garnished with a harvest of impunity and total disregard for legitimacy. politics devoid of morality niccolò machiavelli reflecting the political realism of his time in his small book the prince captured how acquisition and retention of power was totally divested of morality. he presented politics as a battle, a do-or-die game. what is important is victory regardless of any type of evil that could punctuate the means. what is needed is the grabbing of power. consequently, politics turned into a game of permanent interest and not permanent friends. in that craze for political power, morality is totally thrown overboard. legitimacy and ethical principles are sacrificed at the altar of political expediency. they do not bother on what will be the long term effect. we do not need proficiency in contemporary politics to know that many countries remarkably nigeria have turned corruption into a routine of symbiotic “chop-i-chop” philosophy. it is carried out with impunity. in fact, nigerian politicians seem sunk deep in machiavellian tactics consequently stripped politics of any moral content. it is a tactics that exalts lie at the expense of the truth. as machiavellli (1981) has it, “one must know how to colour one's actions and to be a great liar and deceiver. men are so simple, and so much creatures of circumstance, that the deceiver will always find someone ready to be deceived. for him, a prudent ruler cannot and must not honour his word when it places him at a disadvantage…and no ruler ever lacked good excuses to colour his bad faith” (machiavelli 1980:100). in fact, the ruler in the words of machiavelli (1981a) “should not deviate from what is good, if that is possible, but he should know how to do evil, if that is necessary” (p.101). such advice is indicative of uprooting morality from political process. from the happenings in the 2023 presidential and gubernatorial elections in nigeria, one could evidently notice a barefaced application of machiavellian tactics. among them were: exploitation of religious and ethnic divide, disenfranchisement, calumny, political thuggery and arson, vote selling and vote buying, manipulation of election result (rigging) to mention but a few. all these were geared towards the final glorification of power. believe it or not, all these were adopted to surmount all the stumbling blocks in the wheel of progress. these according to okoye (1987) are indicative of the fact that, “politics has become a lawless game, in which anything that beats the enemy is sanctioned, in which rules and promises change with ghastly realities of the power 90 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june struggle, and the successful is often a combination of confidence-man and show man, a mastermind of putsch and roguish pleasantry…” (preface) exploitation of religious and ethnic divide/peaceful protest nigeria is not only characterized by ethnic diversity but also religious diversity. the two major religions are christianity and islam. normally adherents of each religion are driven by the credo of their religion. religion normally upholds moral values and preaches their observance in order to ensure good living. according to mbiti, “it is religion which tells what is right and what is wrong… religion enriches people's morale for the welfare of the individual and society at large” (p. 177). man is a religious animal and nigerians particularly are religious people. based on that, religion plays a pivotal role in the training and formation of minds. adeleye (1988) put it rightly thus: religion breeds an ideal heart in man to be conscious of the need to have a clean heart. by this, he will grow to have a philanthropic or patriotic thought before venturing to lead or represent his people in government of the state. in another words, religion will prepare the mind of man to be a good politician who will constantly fall back upon his religion to guide him. the teaching or threats of religion are expected to guide him to be able to lead his people aright as a politician with fear of god in him. he will never consider himself first, rather he knows that he is the servant of the electorates. (p. 165) political aspirants have now and again exploited religion to their own advantage. in fact, magbadelo (2003) maintains that, “religion, as volatile as it is, remains a veritable instrument for political manipulation in nigeria. politicians across the ethnic divide have found religion more useful in mobilizing support for their candidacies or parties than ethnicity. this is so because it is the belief of the religious bigots that the two religions cut across ethnic identities.” (p.64-65) disenfranchisement exercise of franchise is a constitutional demand that ought not be denied to any person that has attained the required age. in that regard ochei (2022) opines that every citizen of nigeria who has attained eighteen years old of age has the right to vote and be voted for during elections. this is a political right guaranteed by the constitution. when people are debarred whether advertently or inadvertently from exercising this right, it is called disenfranchisement. besides, this takes various forms. at times the registration of voters becomes an uphill task for the electorate that many get disenchanted and frustrated because of unwarranted bottlenecks in the process. sequel to that, zeal regarding voting gradually begins to wane in the face of an enormous volume of uncollected voter's cards, the large number of deregistered voters and several unsuccessful efforts by most newly registered voters to collect their permanent voter's cards (pvcs). these obvious cases not only instill the fear of disenfranchisement but also make it very obvious and worrisome. in another context, the arrival of voting materials is consciously delayed to an asphyxiating point so that those that are without elastic patience would back out. this strategy is used by one party to dispossess another of votes. when that is done, their chances of emerging victorious become slim in that particular polling unit. more so, there 91 ifeanacho ethical repositioning of loyalty in nigerian politics: towards ... could also be broad daylight snatching of ballot boxes from polling units by political hoodlums to the utter consternation of the helpless voters. in these ways people are denied of exercising their civic responsibility. moreover, the commencement of the election may be delayed so as to accommodate only few voters, leaving many. campaign of calumny this is the public assassination of one's personality. it is the dragging of one's name or reputation to the mud of public shame. it is slandering and damaging of one's character. take it or leave it, calumny has continued to play a significant role in elections in nigeria. the politicians openly hurl abuses on each other. it is always a clear campaign of calumny geared towards de-marketing opposition candidates in order to reduce their electoral value to one's advantage. bemoaning the situation of nigerian election, aji (2023) lamented that the political campaigns are usually but unfortunately “saturated with all kinds of manipulations, fake and unsubstantiated media narratives, and character assassinations to project one candidate as a better choice over the other. unfortunately, this trend in our political history has shifted our campaigns from an issue-based process to some jamboree gatherings intended to excite supporters and further impoverish the masses through sharing of peanuts to buy over voters.” in this way, they fought vigorously to win by hook or by crook. consequently, it involves a damaging confrontational posture of blackmailing. in fact, the attempt is to reduce one's to nothingness. this method is used mostly by those who cannot capture discipline through their speeches. as a last resort they take to political name-calling and pouring out uncomplimentary and poisonous innuendos on their opponents. this is politically inappropriate and depicts a lack of political hygiene in speech. vote selling and vote buying it is pertinent to consider vote selling and vote buying. chaudhry (2023) raised the concern that “a culture of vote-buying, poll-rigging and manipulation has seeped into our electoral process and threatens to destroy the very foundations of our democratic traditions and undermine the integrity of our elections” (p.247). vote buying and selling is a phenomenon that has permeated the process of democratic election. according to agbi and saka-olokungboye (2019), it is the process whereby political parties, their candidates or agents seek to buy the vote of an electorate in an upcoming election. vote buying and selling can take various forms such as a monetary exchange, as well as an exchange for necessary goods and services. this practice is often used to incentivize or persuade voters to turn out on elections and vote in a particular way” (p.146). it is the commercialization of the voting process implicitly guided by the principle of do ut des (i give that you may give). evidently, money politics has become the order of the day. the display of affluence at election most often determines to which side victory tilts. it is no more the will of the people that objectively determines victory rather the will is swayed by money. there is however no gainsaying the fact that money is important with regard to putting the logistics in place, but when the election is totally beclouded by the spray of 92 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june money, the danger looms. as obasanjo (2005) enthused, with so much resources being deployed to capture elective officers, it is not difficult to see the correlation between politics and the potential for high level corruption. the greatest losers are the ordinary people, those voters whose faith and investment in the system are hijacked and subverted because money, not their will, is made the determining factor in elections. can we not move from politics of money and materialism to politics of ideas, issues and development. in the current quagmire, it is evident that after so much money has been spent to secure victory, corruption will definitely reign supreme. more so, since there is lack of legitimacy, it will be very hard for such politician to secure the trust of the people. agbi and saka-olokungboye (2019a) maintain and rightly so, that, effective and efficient governance are based on the tenets and practice of democracy. a legitimate government must be the one that enjoys the trust and support of the majority of the people. legitimacy engenders trust and support of the people to government policies and reform agenda. sadly, money politics, vote buying and selling erode this very important attribute of democratic government. this is because, the people believe that those who rule them must do so on the basis of popular consent, freely expressed as the tonic required to make the people make material sacrifice that reform agenda, social, political or economic inevitably demand. the fact is that, without legitimacy, there is no trust, and without trust there can be no genuine political support (p.149). in sum, vote buying and selling obstructs the democratic process by meddling with the rights of citizens concerning the making of free decision in their choice of who is to represent them and their interest. such situation goes to install political charlatans as leaders. be that as it may, we must also continue not only to interrogate but also churn out a veritable means of extirpating the undue use of money and the weaponization of poverty by moneybag politicians. political thuggery political thuggery in the words of rasak, b. & garuba, r.o. (2017), is an “act of political violence or behaviour by ruffians hired or instigated by politicians to intimidate their opponents. it is the intentional use of physical force threatened against another person or a group or community that either results in injury, death, psychological harm or deprivation within a political circle” (p.4). according to mandyen (2017), it is usually geared towards influencing an electoral process with objective of gaining an unfair political advantage over another and geared towards winning political power by subverting the ends of the electoral and democratic process through intimidation and disempowerment of political opponents. this illegal interference with the electoral process no doubt is electoral fraud, criminal and has severe consequences on democratic stability in general and national security in particular. these political desperadoes armed to kill, kidnap, intimidate, victimize, indulge in arson and other forms of evil eventually become threats in the society. in the post-election situation, most of them turn into armed robbers, assassins etc. corroborating, umar (2018) avers that political thuggery generates worsening insecurity during and after elections; most violent incident in nigerian politics was perpetrated by thugs especially during elections. post-election violence, ethnoreligious crises, and most communal conflicts have their genesis from political thuggery which 93 ifeanacho ethical repositioning of loyalty in nigerian politics: towards ... degenerated into a large form of violence in many cities of nigerian states. this situation led to the poor political culture and more often than not affects democratic sustainability in nigerian politics. (p.85) conclusion when the foundation of nigerian politics is solidly laid on proper use of reason, money politics will gradually fizzle out and moral principles will serve as the attitudinal compass in our political engagements. however, it cannot be effectively done unless there is freedom of choice which is a necessary ingredient of every human act. it has to proceed from the deliberate freewill of man. in the same vein, a human act is constitutive of three essential elements namely, knowledge, freedom and voluntariness. to blot out any of these components makes the act less a human act. politics is a human act, and such has to pass through the crucible of moral determinants. political leaders kill, rig, maim, mudsling, calumniate and upset each other's apple-cart, with the intention of gaining and maintaining themselves in power. by so doing, politics is radically emptied of its moral ingredients and kakistocracy sneaks into the realm of governance with a total lack of legitimacy. leadership in the real sense of the word should be the embodiment of the nation's dream, serve as a shining, a surrogate god, for the citizenry to follow the part of progress. arrogance, confrontation, power intoxication and aversion to constructive criticisms are not the marks of good leadership. the leaders themselves should be transparent with honesty, justice and other virtues. only in this way can government by the worst be nipped from the bud. recommendation loyalty remains vital in the life of man as a political animal. the researcher however recommends that political loyalty has to be guided by proper vision and use of reason. according to attah (2023), our people are now more enlightened to know that one needs to go beyond party affiliation, religious affiliation, ethnic inclination to seek the good; and vote for that goodness or good person in whichever tribe, party, or religion that he/she is found. goodness is an abstract moral principle that is made concretely manifest in human action. such ethical principles must be sought for in any candidate that presents himself/herself for any elective post. people need to know whom they want in any particular office under contest and bear in mind that hiding under a party for the pursuit of selfish interest does not do any good. clueless attachment to party to the detriment of good governance is not but too myopic a political inclination. we must graduate to the level of metapolitics because political process should no longer be based on mere political affiliation or personality but rather on who knows his onions and ready to prove his mettle. it entails mental transformation and re-orientation. finally, borrowing the advice of aji (2023a) political actors must recognize that great democracies thrive on transparency and accountability of institutions; hence, politicians must know that they have moral and legal obligations to seek the welfare of the people and maintain a durable template of governance. 94 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june references adeleye, m.o. (1988). religion, politics and society. in: adewale s.a. (ed). religion and society: the nigerian experience, ibadan: orita publications. 60-75. agbi n. and saka-olokungboye n. (2019). money politics, vote buying and selling in nigeria: an emerging threat to good governance, international journal of advanced academic studies; 1(2): 146-152. aji, v. (2023). of campaigns of calumny, money and integrity of our democracy, retrieved 31/3/2023. alhaji, a.u. et al., (2016). effect of political thuggery on sustainable democracy in nigeria, sahel analyst: journal of management sciences, vol.14, no.3, 75-88. arendt h. (2018). on violence. new york: harcourt, brace and world. aristotle (2012). ethics. chicago: university of chicago press. aristotle (1995). politics. new york: oxford university press. attah, a. (2023). people'll vote candidates, not parties. dailysun 2/2/2023. ejenebo, d.t. (2022). “tinubu, osinbajo and politics of loyalty”, thisday 30/1/2023. fagothey, a. (2000). right and reason, north caroline: tan books. glenn, p.j. (2022). ethics: a classical manual in moral philosophy, st. louis: generic book. machiavelli, n. (1981). the prince, new york: penguin books ltd. mbiti, j. (1990). introduction to african religion and philosophy. london: heinemann. magbadelo, j.o. (2003). the politics of religion in nigeria. world affairs: the journal of international issues , vol. 7, no. 2. obasanjo, o. (2005). political party finance handbook. independent electoral commission (inec) abuja. ochei, a. (2022). does disenfranchisement affect the validity of an election? retrieved 2/4/2023. oke, t. (2022). when loyalty becomes a dirty word, 10/5/2022. olaoye, w. (2022). “may your loyalty be tested,” premium times, 23/1/2022. okoye, m. (1987). the beard of prometheus, ilafracombe devon: arthur stockwell ltd. o r n s t e i n , n . ( 2 0 1 7 ) . a m e r i c a n k a k i s t o c r a c y . parsons, t. (1970). “authority, legitimation and political action,” in his structure and process in modern societies. glencoe, iii.: free press. peschke, k.h. (1991). christian ethics. vol.1. bangalore: theological publications in india. rasak, b. & garuba, r.o. (2017). political thuggery and women participation in politics in nigeria. vol. 8(1):63-76. political science review. scruton, r. (2001). kant. oxford: oxford university press. https://dailytrust.com/of-campaigns-of-calumny-money-and-integrity-of-ourdemocracy/ h t t p s : / / b u s i n e s s d a y. n g / n e w s / l e g a l b u s i n e s s / a r t i c l e / d o e s disenfranchisement-affect-the-validity-of-an-election/ https://punchng.com/whenloyalty-becomes-a-dirty-word/ ht tps: / /www.theat lant ic .com/pol i t ics /archive/2017/10/americankakistocracy/542391/ 95 ifeanacho ethical repositioning of loyalty in nigerian politics: towards ... https://dailytrust.com/of-campaigns-of-calumny-money-and-integrity-of-our-democracy/ https://dailytrust.com/of-campaigns-of-calumny-money-and-integrity-of-our-democracy/ https://businessday.ng/news/legal-business/article/does-disenfranchisement-affect-the-validity-of-an-election/ https://punchng.com/when-loyalty-becomes-a-dirty-word/ https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/10/american-kakistocracy/542391/ exclusive rationalism and empiricism: a disservice to the theory of knowledge stephen timothy akpan & michael benedict abstract philosophy is specifically understood as speculative science. that is to say that it is a science that seeks the truth for the sake of the truth or knowledge for the sake of knowledge. there are two major and parallel poles in the theory of this knowledge the rationalism and empiricism. this study intends to show that the two traditional sources of knowledge can be used in strengthening each other rather than engage in mutual exclusivism. it is a fact that everything has a beginning but it is unfortunate to take the beginning as an end to itself. it is more unfortunate to take the continuation as the beginning and end. empirical knowledge ought to be seen as the beginning of knowledge and rationalism as the continuation of knowledge. both should constitute true and universal knowledge. in reality, it is often difficult to have a oneway satisfying or universal truth without assistance from other areas. there are various methods of interpretation of the bible but none is self-sufficient, it is always required that other methods be diligently applied as well for authentic interpretation. the paper using the analytic method posit that the position that one method is sufficient in giving us the absolute explanations to all the problems and acquisition of knowledge as the exponents of rationalism and empiricism want us to believe. the use of the two major themes to give us relatively sure source of knowledge is a conditio sine qua non. this title suggests other nomenclatures such as, absolute rationalism/empiricism and radical rationalism/empiricism. they designate the position that excludes the other, and tenaciously hold on to one without respect or reference to the other. this paper concludes that we need the senses and we need reason. the combination of these with proper interpretation and understanding, gives adequate and better knowledge, after all, two good heads are better than one! keywords: philosophy, exclusivism, rationalism, empiricism 1. introduction the concept philosophy cannot be given one precise definition that captures its subject matter. this is because various definitions capture different context as well as different purposes. philosophy etymologically is commonly known as the love of wisdom or the study of wisdom. this concept is rooted down to the greek words of philos (love) and sophia (wisdom). and as such philosophy does not only seek knowledge for personal gains, it endeavours to seek wisdom which consists in the ability to draw meaning from experience, to judge experience wisely. for immanuel kant, philosophy is a critical activity, as critical activity it involves the examination of ideas we live by, this definition akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … arises from socrates, it is a reflective self-examination of principles just and happy life. by these definitions philosophy is the study of general and fundamental concerning matters of human existence. udoidem describes philosophy as ―a one million naira question that is often asked by both the most learned and the unlearned of our society. yet, ever since the question was raised thousands of years ago, it is still being asked today, and the answers received have been as unsatisfactory as they were at the first moment when it was first asked‖ (udoidem, 1992, p. 1). for wittgenstein, philosophy is, i know not what. for socrates, it is a reflective self-examination of principles of the just and happy life, and for kant, it is the articulation of the spirit of the age (udoidem, 1992). this is a show of the difficulty of a universal definition; however, according to omoregbe (2017), the following are possible definitions: (1) philosophy is a rational search for the answers to the questions that arise in the mind when we reflect on human experience (2) philosophy is a rational search for answers to the basic questions about the ultimate meaning of reality as a whole and of human life in particular (p. 3). epistemology is one of the major branches in philosophy. the term epistemology is derived from two greek words, ―episteme‖ which means ―knowledge‖ and ―logos‖ which means logic or rationale. however, according to everit and fisher (1995), in contemporary usage, it has come to mean theory of knowledge. what then is knowledge? there are three ways of looking at the question what knowledge is. first we have capacity knowledge which is referred to as knowledge know how. this type of knowledge refers to the ability of the individual knowing how to do something. for instance, knowing how to put on the television, radio, how to drive a car. the second type of knowledge is knowledge by acquaintance. this type of knowledge deals with the kind of knowledge of what exist in space and time, for example you can know a country, a building, a river or a painting. the third type of knowledge is propositional knowledge. in propositional knowledge, knowledge is defined as justified truth belief. that is for any piece of information to be called knowledge it must satisfied these three conditions which are individually necessary and jointly sufficient for any knowledge claims. for example, to make statement that a knows p, it means that for the truth of a knows that p. they are: 1. p is true 2. a believes that p 3. if a can justify that it is p. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 the first condition, is called the truth condition, it states that you cannot know that something is true if in fact it is false. to know that p means that p must be true for example i know that lokoja is the capital of kogi state, it will be false to say that lokoja is not the capital. the second condition, the condition that a believes that p. the fact that a belives p requires explanation. it is possible for a to know that makurdi is the capital of benue state. but that the knowledge a has comes from uncertain source. the concept believe only signifies that the source of knowledge could be faulty, which means that our knowledge could be inclusive. however, epistemically believe stands for the fact that the strength of conviction still remains undetermined by the second condition. the third condition a justifies that p. the third and final condition is stipulating , that is, the requirement of knowledge is that it must justified here our believe about our statement of fact that makurdi is the capital of benue state is justified because it left the level of believe to justification of the fact the statement is true. there are two schools of thought in epistemology, these schools disagree on the source our knowledge while, while the empiricist contend that it is derived from sense perception, the rationalist argue that it is generated from reason. the outstanding disagreement existing among rationalists and empiricists is within the revered area of epistemology. a branch of philosophy dedicated to the study of the nature, sources and limits of human knowledge. the distinguishing questions in epistemology include: 1. what is the nature of human knowledge? 2. how can we gain knowledge? 3. what are the limits to our knowledge? (markie, 2004, august 19). the dispute between these two epistemic schools emanates from the second question, namely, how can we gain knowledge? this disagreement leads them to give opposing opinions and even to regard the position of the other as nihilistic. epistemology is derived from the greek episteme, and logos, word or explanation. ―it is a branch of philosophy and chiefly concerned with the justification of knowledge possibility‖ (agede, 2019, p. 34). it is an enquiring into what can be known and how it can be known (kenny, 2004, p. 145). in line with this, akpen (2018, p. 24) summarizes it as ―the branch of philosophy concerned with enquiry into the nature, sources and validity of knowledge‖. there has always been in the study of epistemology a conflicting relationship between the rationalist and the empiricist, with each claiming to have the surest and only true way to knowledge. this position is confirmed in the works of the various exponents of both rationalism and empiricism. while the rationalists would say that knowledge is innate, that is inborn, the empiricists would say that there is nothing in the mind that was akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … not first experienced, that is, everything comes from experience. there is no doubt that there are similarities between rationalism and empiricism despite the controversy. both make attempts to answer the fundamental questions of the theory of knowledge, namely, what is knowledge? what can we know? how do we have it? when do we know it? there are certain knowledge that humans possess that are a priori, that is, without experience and there are certain knowledge that humans possess that are a posteriori, that is experienced based. in my opinion, the acceptance of the opposing views by each will be beneficial to epistemology in particular and philosophy in general. in view of this, this paper studies this topic under the following subtopics: the basic arguments of rationalism and empiricism, positive values of rationalism and empiricism in philosophy, areas of disservice and a conclusion. 2. basic arguments of rationalism and empiricism the argument of the origin of knowledge has given birth to two outstanding and important schools of thought, namely, (a) that which concerns itself with the question of whether knowledge is innate, that is, present in the mind at birth therefore when the time is due, the ideas spring up naturally and (b) that which concerns itself with the question whether knowledge is empirical, that is, acquired through experience or sense perception, which means nothing is in the mind, one needs experience before anything is known. these have been of major concern for a long time not only in philosophy but in linguistics and psychology (martinich and stroll, 2020, october, 12). the two outstanding schools of thought are outlined thus: rational source of knowledge or rationalism and empirical source of knowledge or empiricism. 3. rationalism this is a philosophical position whose basic teaching on its source of knowledge holds that true knowledge can only be gotten through reasoning. this can also be called intellectualism. they hold that every human is born with certain basic ideas in his mind and that these basic ideas are known immediately and spontaneously as soon as a man reaches the age of reason without having to learn them. both plato and descartes maintain that true knowledge is already within us in the nature of innate ideas, which we do not acquire but are born within (popkin and stroll, 1993, p. 203), and the process of learning begins with these basic ideas known as innate. they believe and teach that a fundamentally important kind of knowledge can be achieved a priori, that is, independently of sensory experience (bruce, 2008, p. 23). the exponents of this school of thought such as rene descartes, spinoza and leibniz ignore experience as a source of true knowledge and emphasize the role of reason in order to attend clear and certain knowledge. for them, reason alone, using the mathematical method, can attend clear and certain knowledge without reference to experience (omoregbe, knowing philosophy, 2018, p. 140). this position has the backing of popkin and stroll who had previously aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 called this theory ‗rationalistic‘ due to the fact that their fidelity to a particular procedure of reason alone, one can attain knowledge in its strongest sense, a type of knowledge that cannot under any circumstances possibly be false. all rationalistic theories maintain that we cannot find any absolute certain knowledge in sense experience but have to seek for it only in the realm of the mind. it is again sustained that the only real and certain world is what is known through rationalistic procedures and all others known outside this realm are illusory or unreal or still, unimportant world (p. 203). the rationalists develop their arguments in two ways. (a) they argue passionately that there are instances where our knowledge is not or cannot be explained by the senses of touch, sight, feeling, smell and hearing (b) they argue that at such lapses or deficiency, reason supplies what is lacking (markie, 2004, august 19). to be identified as a rationalist, markie asserts that one must accept one or all the following positions: a) intuition or deductive argument: this is a form of rational insight which the rationalists defend and the possibility of reducing from what is known to be there already. b) innate knowledge argument: knowledge coming as part of our nature. c) the innate concept argument: meaning that some of the concepts we use are derived from our rational nature and never from experience. these concepts are essential to the rationalists (markie, 2004, august 19). 3.1 arguments against rationalism it is clear that empiricism emerged as a reaction against the position of the rationalists who still hold that innate knowledge is real and the only sure or certain source of knowledge. the skeptical opponents of the rationalists holds that, what the rationalists are offering the theory of knowledge as a source of knowledge is merely personal fantasies and mere beliefs taken much more seriously by those who held it. what they are talking about is neither visible nor tangible and the existence of such world and knowledge does not make sense for many except those who hold them, therefore, such world and knowledge are not real (popkin and stroll, 1993, p. 203). the debate of the contemporary time made initial appearance and manifestation in the work of john locke, namely, essay: concerning human understanding. the interest of locke with this polemics was to discredit innatism and give credence to sense perception as the only true source of knowledge. locke‘s arguments in debunking rationalism are in two folds (a) that their evidence or arguments were not arguments at all and (b) that even if they were granted for the sake of argument, their own account (empiricist) was to be preferred since it was simple and in accord with experience. locke‘s criticism is found in the chapter ii of his essay. he criticizes the possibility of innate theoretical principles. this argument is captured in three sentences: (a) if in fact there are any innate principles, akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … then everyone would assent to them (b) there are no innate principles that everyone assent to (c) therefore, there are no innate principles (lock, 2020, november, 5). his objection is based on the fact that there are no principles that enjoy universal acceptance. he supported his point with two philosophical principles (a) principle of identity which says that: what is, (b) the principle of non-contradiction which says, nothing can be and not be at the same time. for the idea of god he says it is unlikely to be innate, since many cultures in the world recognize no god (lamprecht, 1956, p. 100-101). in all these locks argument is simple, it is impossible for a thing to be in the mind without its being conscience of its existence. other criticisms have been advanced in recent times against rationalism. according to the empiricists, advancing on the argument simplicity introduced by lock, william of ockham has a principle in philosophy expressed in latin thus: entia non sunt multiplicandapraeternecessitatem. meaning, ―entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity‖ (mautner, 2015, p. 440). using ockham‘s razor, yount (2020, december 9) argues that when deciding between competing theories that explain the same phenomena, the simpler theory is better. empiricism is simpler, therefore, it is the better theory. again, advancement in science has added to the argument. much of science is founded on empiricist principles, and would not have advanced without it. if we base our conclusions about the world on empiricism, we can change our theories and improve upon them and see our mistakes. the rationalists do not have this to offer. 4. empiricism the english term empirical is derived from the ancient greek word ἐμπειρία, which is a translation of the latin experientia, from which the words experience and experiment are derived. in philosophy, the term is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience (mautner, 2015, p. 186). it is one of the outstanding themes in epistemology, and emphasizes the role of observable evidence in the formation of ideas. empiricism has been identified with the ―blank slate‖ concept tabula rasa, which designates the fact that the human mind is ―blank‖ at birth and develops ideas through experience alone. in the opinion of the empiricists, learning is observation based while perception and knowledge are not possible without experience. empiricism is a philosophical postulation which teaches that only or at least the most reliable source of human knowledge is experience, especially perception by means of the physical senses. for them, knowledge is gotten through sense perception. this is a direct opposite of the rationalist school. they object to anything like innate ideas in the mind of man at birth and maintain that all knowledge and all ideas come from experience. man is not born with any idea the human mind at birth is blank. they hold that all knowledge https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ancient_greek https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/philosophy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/theory https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/empirical_evidence https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/epistemology https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/empirical_evidence aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 begin from experience and emphasize the indispensable role of sense experience as the foundation of knowledge (omoregbe, 2018). there are three types of empiricism, namely, classical, radical and moderate empiricism. classical empiricism states that there is no such thing as innate or in-born knowledge. radical empiricism holds that our knowledge is solely on our senses. what is not experienced via our senses, exist not. they reject religious beliefs since they are not verifiable through the evidence of the senses. moderate empiricism maintains just as others that our experiences are founded on our senses; however, there are instances where our knowledge is not based on our senses. to this clause of moderation, they offer no explanation as to the alternative knowledge. 4.1 weakness of empiricism the defenders of rationalism have also advanced very useful arguments against the empiricist and in support of rationalism. mathematics and logic are for instance inevitably innate. they are true not because of our five senses, but because of reason‘s ability to connect ideas. morality again is innate: how do we get to know what is right or wrong, our five senses? no. we cannot experience things like justice, human rights, moral duties, moral good and evil with our five senses. what can the empiricists say about this? (yount, 2020, december 9). there are other arguments that the empiricists have actually not been able to sustain with their doctrine of sense perception. for them it is only what has been experienced that can constitute knowledge. by implication, it means that knowledge will be relative. relative in the sense that what one has not experienced does not exist or is not knowledge at all. this will introduce minimalism into the revered area of knowledge and minimize the scope of knowledge. perception is not universal, that is to say that what a person perceives as true can be false for another person. again, perception is also affected by external factors: the same experiment under different conditions (temperature for example) can give different results, unbeknownst to the careless researcher. age and health conditions can affect the way one perceives things (tasosvossos, 2020, november 1). in the classification of empiricism, moderate empiricism holds that our experience is founded on our senses; however, there are instances where our knowledge is not based on our senses. what is their true explanation to this? are they now in support of rationalism? this seems to introduce division into their camp. the position that the mind is a tabula raza has not been favorable to the empiricists and their doctrine. it raises question of how one can have knowledge of what he has not seen or experienced before. for some who have not seen a lion before, they should not think of a lion existing. god has not been seen or experienced by the senses by anyone. how do they explain the existence of god? for george berkley, an anglican bishop and an empiricist, god exist; how did he genuinely come to the knowledge that god exist while he has not experienced him with his senses? they have to explain too, especially george berkley, how abstract ideas exist, such as, (a) the idea of good (b) heaven (c) hell (d) world after this world, etc. how are general concepts possible akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … too since we don‘t experience or see them? the word humankind exist yet we have not seen it, what we see are men and women (martinich and stroll, 2020, october, 12). another interesting answer still awaiting the empiricists to give is the explanation to natural law. it is a fact that there is a permanent underlining basis of all things. the ancient greece philosophers believe that there is a perfect justice given to humanity by nature which all positive laws should conform to as close as possible (martin and law, 2006, p. 351). this they call natural law, and refers to ―the sum of those universally binding moral principles that can be discerned through reason‖ (nwabude, 2008, p. 130). to deny this means that the empiricist do not believe in the law of nature and to believe in the law of nature and still deny the importance of reason is another disservice to knowledge. 5. positive values of rationalism and empiricism in philosophy positive value in philosophy means constructive rather than destructive. it is applied to things or qualities which are good, desirable and worthwhile. in its nature, it gears towards what is good or laudable, progress, success, etc. empiricism has always been recognized as an indispensable part of the scientific method. this is so because theories and hypotheses ought to be observed and tested in order to be considered correct. empiricists argue that nothing can be known for certain and, therefore, they do not believe in dogmas or absolute truths. both views, that is, empiricism and rationalism contribute immensely to the growth of philosophy in general and epistemology in particular. rationalism and empiricism are two distinct philosophical approaches to understanding the world around us. they are often contrasted with each other, as their approach to knowledge is completely different. empiricists believe that we learn about our world through our previous experience, while for rationalists, reason is the basis of understanding anything. both views can help someone attain knowledge ((tasosvossos, 2020, november 1). rationalism believes in the use of reason. it provides philosophy with the search for reason why objects exist or whey certain things happen. for the rationalists, the fact that an object comes back to the ground when thrown upwards is not because a million people have observed so but because there is a reason for it to happen, that is, the law of gravity. rationalism provides epistemology with deep knowledge and search for reasons in reality(tasosvossos, 2020, november 1). questioning the nature of things for authentication is one of the values of empiricism because it makes sure that philosophy does not accept anything such as dogmas. one of the benefits of empiricism to both philosophy and the theory of knowledge is that it is aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 simple, real and practical. these are the characteristics of empiricism. this is so because it is not difficult to observe that cars use more fuel and energy to climb hills, infants grow to become adults and eventually die, objects thrown up will come down on its own, morning is followed by afternoon and then evening, etc. these are some of the things that we do not need extra grace and intelligence to interpret; they are observable, practical and easy. 6. areas of disservice in philosophy as a whole, service has been identified as helpful actions, actions performed to assist, lead toward a greater height or to contribute positively. disservice on the other hand is understood and interpreted in many fronts as actions that cause harm or difficulty. o‘colins gerald &farugia edward (2000) describes it in brief as ―harmful action‖. common areas that emphasize the division between rationalists and empiricists disservice includes: 6.1 relativism sophists have generally been identified as the founders of relativism in western philosophy. indications of this emerged in the 5th century bc and protagoras is said to have coined the phrase, "man is the measure of all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not." plato popularized this term in a paraphrase from his dialogue protagoras: "what is true for you is true for you, and what is true for me is true for me" (william and lewis, p. 28). roughly put, is the view that truth and falsity, right and wrong, standards of reasoning, and procedures of justification are products of differing conventions and frameworks of assessment and that their authority is confined to the context giving rise to them (baghramian and carter, 2020, 15 th november). relativism belongs to the family of philosophical views that negates objectivity and holds that facts are not absolute but relative to the persons or groups that are holding them. the summary of it is that there are no absolute truths and values; they are determined by periods, cultures, societies and persons (o‘colins&farugia, 2000. p. 224). to believe in relativism means that various people can have diverged opinions about issues and it is correct for them. simply put, relativism can be understood in this philosophical saying ―different strokes for different folks. this is the idea that what is good or bad, right or wrong, true or false, is so for different people‖. relativism in all its strands is the denial of absolute truth. things are true to individuals or cultures based on their perspectives. this is already a weak spot on the theory of knowledge in particular and philosophy in general. if what is true for mr. a is not true for mr. b, or what is true in one culture is not in another, can we truly say that we know? https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sophists https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/western_philosophy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/western_philosophy https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/before_christ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/protagoras https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/plato https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/protagoras_(dialogue) akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … 6.2 disparity among epistemologists acquisition of knowledge has been the focus of philosophers and the contention among epistemologists. from the time of the ionian fathers, philosophers were out to discover the constitutive element of things. the emergence of the sophists gave birth to epistemology, where the focus was changed from cosmology to man and the society (omoregbe, 2017, p. 60). the primary mission of epistemologists has been to unravel the secrets of knowledge, to make knowledge available and accessible to all. in doing this, they follow different paths and these paths ultimately ought to lead to the same destination, namely, knowledge/wisdom. the treatment of each adherent of the opposing side and position as meaningless and unimportant creates a bigger problem, that is, a division among people who are out to solve the same problem. the challenge is, if we cannot get people who are trying to lead us to true knowledge to unite, what will be the value of what they are teaching? if they discredit others, how can they sustain their veracity? 6.3 it demeans creativity to demean is to undermine the status, dignity or value of something. creativity has been encouraged in all areas of life as the capacity to invent or create something. it is often a brain work and a result of deep reflection. it is true that there could be instances where senses come to help but a greater percentage of assistance will always come from the use of reason otherwise it will not be called creativity. the separation of the two sources of knowledge will definitely undermine the power of creativity. exclusive empiricism is a disservice to epistemology as it denies the effort to invent. again, it presents humans as incapable of reasoning. this makes it appear as if they can only receive what they experience, therefore, are fully controllable and manipulatable. this is made possible by the claim that it is only what we see that works therefore we rely only on what we see and not what we can reason out. this limits our knowledge in the first place, clampdown on us in our effort to reason out of our problems. that is to say, therefore a solution that has not been experienced or known through the senses does not exist. 7. conclusion the controversy has been between the rationalist claiming that knowledge is innate and the empiricists claiming that knowledge is derived from experience or sense perception of touch, smell, sight, feeling and hearing. however, the innate idea and the sense perception experience are valid ways of gaining knowledge. if any is taken as sacrosanct and the other discarded, true knowledge may not be achieved. in our view, both schools are complementary. there are no exhaustive arguments to show that there are no innate ideas and there are no exhaustive arguments to show that we cannot gain knowledge through experience. therefore, we have to be cautious with the way we stretch either side so as not to fall into skepticism as both the empiricists and the rationalists have tried to by denying the existence of others. certain ideas are innate and knowledge can also be gained through the senses, however, we must be careful since the senses are not static, they change. our aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 sense of perception can also be deceptive depending on our state of mind. finally, we need the senses and we need our reason to be relatively sure of what we know. the combination of these with proper interpretation and understanding, gives adequate and true knowledge, after all, two good heads are better than one. rationalism is a good head, empiricism is a good head, let us use them well for the sake of knowledge. akpan & benedict exclusive rationalism and empiricism … references agede, a. k. (2019) ―branches of philosophy‖ in agundu, t. o. (ed.), critical issues in philosophy, logic and human existence. abuja: donafrique publishers. akpen, t.t. (2018) ―the main branches of philosophy‖inihuah, a.s (ed.), philosophy and logic for beginners. makurdi: obeta continental press. baghramian, maria and carter, a. j. (2020, november 15) ―relativism‖ edward n. zalta (ed.), the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (2020 edition), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/relativism. bruce anne. an empiricist theory of knowledge. revised 3/11/2009. essien augustus (2019) ―philosophy as the servant of truth and justice‖ philosophy and praxis: journal of the nigeria philosophical association (npa)vol. 9., 53-67. everit , n. and fisher, p. (2002) ―the analysis of knowledge‖ in michael huemer (ed.), epistemology: contemporary reading. london: routledge. kenny, a. (2004) ancient philosophy. oxford: clarendon press. lamprecht, sterling p. (1956) locke selections. new york: charles scribner‘s sons. lock, john. (2020, november 5)―essay concerning human understanding.‖ https//www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockessay/section2. markie, p. (2020, december 9) ―rationalism vs. empiricism.‖ retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism. martin and law, (ed.) (2006) a dictionary of law, (6 th edition). oxford: oxford university press. martinich and stroll. (2020, october 12) ―epistemology: philosophy‖ retrieved from https://www.britanica.com. mautner, t. (2005). dictionary of philosophy, (2 nd edition). london: penguin books. nwabude, e. (2008) an encyclopedic dictionary of canon law of the western (cic 1983) church and western (cceo 1990) churches. onitsha: africana. o‘colins, g. &farugia e. (2000) a concise dictionary of theology. new york: t&t clark. omoregbe, j. (2018) knowing philosophy. lagos: joja educational research and publishers. (2017) epistemology, theory of knowledge: a systematic and historical study. lagos: joja educational research and publishers. popkin richard and avrum stroll (1993) philosophy made simple, (2 nd edition). new york: three rivers press. tasosvossos. (2020, november 1) ―advantages & disadvantages of rationalism & empiricism.‖ retrieved from https://classroom.synonym.com/advantages-disadvantages-positivism 12088541.html. udoidem, s. i. (1992) understanding philosophy. lagos: african heritage research and publications. william s. s. and lewis, m. s.(1993).ideas of the great philosophers. barnes & noble publishing. yount, d.j. (2020, december 9) ―empiricism v. rationalism.‖ retrieved from https://www.mesacc.edu/~davpy35701/text/empm-v-ratm.html http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/lockessay/section2 http://www.britanica.com/ https://classroom.synonym.com/advantages-disadvantages-positivism-12088541.html https://classroom.synonym.com/advantages-disadvantages-positivism-12088541.html https://books.google.com/books?id=vi7cqmw8swyc&q=protagoras%2bplato%2b%22what%2bis%2btrue%2bfor%2byou%22&pg=pa28 http://www.mesacc.edu/~davpy35701/text/empm-v-ratm.html 1 covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing in the modern world: a challenge to global humanism evaristus emeka isife faculty of arts, department of philosophy, nnamdi azikiwe university, awka, anambra state, nigeria abstract december 2019 brought a negative turn in the global health sector. this is as it marked the emergence of an infectious pandemic known as covid-19. spreading from wuhan, in hubei province of china, this infectious virus direly affected the global health sector and became a huge challenge to global humanism. this challenge emerged as global emphasis among other remedies dwell on physical distancing among people in to order minimize infections. as such, human relationship; social and personal contact on which humanism depends was hindered. analytically therefore, this paper examines how covid-19 and its remedy of physical distancing have become a challenge to global humanism. this study finds that covid-19 and present physical distancing tend to separate people from one another. yet, both are paradoxically uniting humanity and enhancing human capability and responsibility towards a common front in addressing global challenges. as such, this paper concludes that difficulties naturally foster the growth of humanism which now thrives more than before. this growth has been visible in human ingenuity towards discovery of covid-19 vaccines, action plans like regular washing of hands, wearing of masks and personal protective equipment (ppe) that stand as reflection of humanism in the modern world. key words: covid-19; challenge; humanism; pandemic; physical distancing introduction as world health organization (who) was by march 2020 declaring covid-19 a global pandemic, the virus has already wrecked havoc on the world population. and ―by the end of march 2020; more than three-quarters of a million people had been diagnosed with covid-19 and more than 39, 000 had died‖ (mesa, et al., 2020,p. 38). the last time the world suffered such health threat with dire challenges on humanism was a century ago when the influenza flu of 1918-1919 wiped out about 50 million people (idowu, 2020). at the moment however, covid-19 pandemic has swiftly affected all the continents of the world. as such, the age-long conventional socio-physical contact and interaction that boost humanism is becoming zilch. this is as people largely huddle behind doors or stay meters apart and unable to even get close to their neighbours in the name of physical distancing. this not withstanding; healthcare facilities are now over-stretched, human movement is largely restricted, global trade has been shaken to its foundation, offices and places of worship are largely abandoned and humanism is in every way threatened. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 2 indeed, physical distancing as one of the measures of contending this virus slows down the course of humanism. at the same time, it stimulates the human instinct of self preservation and natural impulse to unite and work together in time of difficulties. thus, humanity has once again been propelled to prove her intellectual, physical capabilities and potentialities in evolving solutions to global problems. in reflecting these qualities, covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing is today fostering exchange of ideas and interdependency of people thereby enhancing humanism. sequel to this, the present availability of maximum support, palliatives, action plans like regular washing of hands, wearing of masks, personal protective equipment (ppe), and covid-19 vaccines testify to the growth of humanism in the modern world. this development has however exposed the unnecessary earlier larger dependence of humanity on supernaturalism, monolithic ideologies, traditions and religious creeds. as such, global humanism now remains a compelling ideology much more than geopolitics, religion and traditions. hence, irrespective of distance, space and time, more right thinking people are becoming part of rational and scientific propelled humanism that foster the growth of humanity, safe and fulfilled habitation of humans in the modern world. understanding the concepts the basic concepts in this treatise are; covid-19, physical distancing and humanism. covid-19 is a human infectious virus that emerged from wuhan, hubei province of china in december 2019 (de vos, 2020; jiang, et al., 2020; lipistch, et al., 2020). it is a virus which name was given to the sickness it causes that is popularly known as corona virus. as an acronym, covid-19 stands for corona virus infectious disease 2019. it attacks the human heart, kidney, nervous system, lungs and the entire respiratory system making its victims unable to breathe properly. as such, its symptoms consist in persistent dry cough, fever, breathlessness, aches, pains, nasal congestion, runny nose, sore throat and diarrhea that takes six to fourteen days to manifest. although covid-19 can be asymptomatic in some patients, the virus spreads primarily through droplets of saliva or discharge from the nose when an infected person coughs or sneezes (idowu, 2020). in congruence with this view, wilder-smith and freedman (2020) argue that covid-19 is transmitted by respiratory droplets and requires certain proximity of people to spread. covid-19 could also be understood as the present pandemic that is effectively contained through combined protocols of social and medical managements as well as preventive personal hygienic techniques. these combined protocols include; isolation/quarantine, physical distancing (about two meters apart), personal hygiene, use of face mask and vaccine, etc. with covid-19 appearing with unprecedented damages, physical distancing became a globally pronounced non clinical measure to contend its pandemic. this raises the fundamental questions: what really is physical distancing? how is it central in contending covid-19 pandemic? how does it paradoxically hinder and foster global humanism? physical distancing connotes measures like self-isolation, avoiding close contact with another person and staying at least two meters away from the other https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2590198220300324#bb0050 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2590198220300324#bb0070 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2590198220300324#bb0125 isife covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing … 3 person. it also connotes other global strategies like ―closure of educational institutions and workplaces, cancellation of mass gatherings, isolation of suspected or confirmed cases, quarantine of persons in contact with confirmed cases, stay-at-home recommendations, and even mandatory quarantine in some cities and residential areas‖ (mesa, et al., 2020, p. 38). to these, wilder-smith and freedman (2020) add that the closing of shops, restaurants and bars, prohibition of public events and imposition of work-from-home as efficient measures in contending covid-19 pandemic. based on these, mesa, et al (2020) explains physical distancing as spatial distancing, bodily or physical disconnectedness from people. physical distancing is thus the minimizing of physical contacts with others in public spaces. in other words, it is the maintaining of physical separation amongst people in order to minimize transmission of corona virus (rubin, 2020). physical distancing is therefore the nonpharmacological preventive practice employed by diverse governments to halt the pandemic of covid-19 virus. this preventive measure has become important because transmission of covid-19 goes with saliva droplets that rest on people in close proximity (within 1m). hence, the global call for physical distance is so important today because the ―transmission of the covid-19 virus can occur by direct contact with infected people and indirect contact with surfaces in the immediate environment or with objects used on the infected person‖ (isife, 2021,p. 59). besides, humanism is a philosophical and scientific movement premised on the viewpoint that human beings have one life and should make the most use of it without requiring supernatural sanctions, restrictions and supports. arguably, humanism formally dates back to the philosophical epochs of the sophists. then, protagoras was the first to formally establish that ―man is the measure of all things, of the things that are, that they are, and of the things that are not, that they are not‖ (stumpf, 1994, p.32). with this conviction, protagoras publicly taught that man is the standard of existence, and should be the parameter and focus of judgments and decisions in the world. this must be why many scholars understood humanism as the study of humanities; courses and classical studies that directly revolves on man. in congruence with this understanding, encyclopedia of social sciences (1937) captures humanism as a reasonable balance of life, freedom from religiosity or supernaturalism, responsiveness to all human passions and a homocentric philosophy. humanism is therefore a term that encapsulates the present growing consciousness that upholds human potentials and capacities to take responsibility for their actions and events around them, without recourse to supernatural, religion or ideology. this, thus, means that humanism as a ―progressive life stance without supernaturalism, affirms our ability and responsibility to lead meaningful, ethical lives capable of adding to the greater good of humanity‖ (omosulu & inja, 2019, pp.91-92). it also means that humanism stands for secular consciousness that places on human beings the responsibility of making the world a free, peaceful and better place. this way of thinking and perception today underscores wide range of human activities and approaches to unfolding realities in the ever changing world. humanism is therefore a rational philosophy informed by science, inspired by art and motivated by human https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2590198220300324#bb0125 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 4 compassion for each other. it is ―a body of philosophies and ethical perspectives that emphasize the value of human beings, individually, collectively, and generally place more importance on rational thought than on strict faith or adherence to principle‖ (onyekwere & uche, 2013, p. 94). it has also been noted that humanism, … affirms the dignity of humans, supports the maximization of individual liberty and opportunity in line with the social and planetary responsibility. it advocates human rights and social justice, and freed of supernaturalism, acknowledges the existence of humans as part of nature; thereby deriving its goals from human experience rather than theological or ideological abstractions (omosulo & inja, 2019, pp. 91-92). humanism as well ―espouses reason, ethics and justice, while specifically rejecting supernatural and religious ideas as a basis of ideology and decision making‖ (onyekwere & uche, 2013, p. 94). this rejection does not however remove or negate the nature of man as a religious being. it rather emphasizes ―the worth of human experiences as the benchmark for decision making‖ (omosulu & inja, 2019, p.87). indeed, humanism is a homocentric or anthropocentric mode of thought. this is as it holds human interest at heart, and exist on the basis that humans are capable of resolving the problems of the world (mairi, 1998). from all these, it stands that humanism reflects a secular thought, an outlook and way of life comprising of synthesis of lessons of history, philosophic thoughts, truths and scientific advancement that puts human interest, needs and values at the fore front. it also means that humanism is a way of thinking that is not exclusive to philosophers and scholars, but stands as the creed of average men and women who seek happy, progressive, free and useful lives. this is why dukor (2010) describes it as a ―way of life that gives meaning to human life, places man in an outstanding place within the society and universe and gear towards an open society and open mind therein‖ (p.71). emergence of covid-19 and physical distancing in the modern world one of the most perplexing aspects of covid-19 is its origin. stakeholders argue on whether this origin is natural or artificial. however, many theories emerge regarding this origin. among them is the natural but zoonotic theory which holds that covid19 likely emerged from animals like bats and pangolins. for chinese government and who, these animals are possible carriers of the type of virus that can emerge as covid-19 in humans. consequently, chinese government placed restrictions on the consumption of those animals. another origin of corona virus emerged from divine theory peddled by some religionists. this theory claim that covid-19 emerged as a result of human increasing iniquities. corona virus for them is therefore an expression of god’s wrath against humans, which can only be pacified through human repentance and atonement. isife covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing … 5 there is also the conspiracy theory of origin of covid-19. this theory holds that covid-19 was developed in the laboratory by some disgruntled chinese scientists as an intended bio-weapon of warfare against the us, who lacked the smartness to foresee that the virus will spread to other parts of the world (operanews.com, 2020). among the proponents of this theory is the us president donald trump and larry klayman. the latter, allegedly, filled $20 trillion lawsuit against chinese government for infecting the world with covid-19 (madhukalya, 2020). supporting this theory, donald trump has continued to refer to corona virus as ―china virus‖. adding to these theories of origins is the skeptic theory that views covid-19 as non-existent. peddlers of this theory are mostly the uneducated and rural dwellers in many parts of the world. for many africans within this group, covid-19 is a hoax by chinese government to keep people indoors in order to establish her 5g mobile communication network which has been envisaged to have dire radiation effects on humans. many nigerians in particular also believe that african leaders are collaborating with china and foreign media to promote the existence of covid-19 in order to have access to billions of dollars meant for palliative by the united nations for worst affected countries. with covid-19 however came physical distancing of up to two meters as one of the effective measures of contending its pandemic. physical distancing differs from social distancing. for while physical distancing allows people to physically communicate, meet and exchange ideas giving each other at least two meters, social distancing would not allow people to physically meet. in this sense, social distancing largely abhors human physical gatherings but physical distancing permits such so far recommended gap that undermine physical contact is observed. thus, social distancing abhors human public gatherings while physical distancing points at the gathering of small number of people in which the recommended least of two meters apart is feasible. social distancing therefore points to avoidance of public gathering, remaining out of congregate settings, avoiding mass gatherings and maintaining distance. challenges of covid-19 to global humanism humanism thrives when people freely move, rationally converge, relate and interact. for pragmatic ideas that form the contents; principle and tools of humanism causally and dialectically result from such meddling. but with covid-19, social, economic and scientific activities as well as human movement and sedentary life style were significantly hindered. for people were afraid of getting infected. as such, the cross fertilization of ideas, ingenuity and manpower which propels humanism became significantly minimal. in restricting people’s movements, covid-19 has other devastating effects on humanism. people who live in crowded places and conditions, sub-standard accommodations and confined spaces with limited means of survival faced starvation. covid-19 also affected transportation system, industry, agriculture, services and safe distribution of products. significantly, there was low production of food and other commodities leading to shortages and its consequences that weakened aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 6 humanity and humanism. caught in the middle were the migrant workers, labourers and daily earners who faced sudden unemployment and starvation. exacerbating this situation was the closure of fresh food markets in many parts of the world. this changed the eating habits and diets of many individuals and increased poor human health. from the estimate posited by lambert, et al (2020) covid-19 doubled the number of poor and hungry people which was estimated to hit 265 million by the end of 2020. with covid-19 and its infectious nature, self/human isolation from normal social life, reductions in physical activities has been the order of the day. people’s economic income also became reduced. this has led to increasing rate of human anxiety, chronic conditions, mental problems, depression, home accidents, suicide and domestic violence. thus, coping with the increasing stresses and strains resulting from covid-19 pandemic was a serious challenge for everyone, and humanism in general. the challenge of covid-19 to global humanism also extends to entertainment industries. to safeguard the health of entertainers, the entire entertainment industries; sports, theatres, movies, etc., came to a halt. these are the sectors that through the years served as major social cohesion and channel through which humanism is projected to the public and inculcated in the people. worst still, those whose emotional and psychological health depended on entertainment industries met worse conditions due to this halt. another sector of humanism hugely challenged by covid-19 was the religious services. this became affected as the churches, mosques, shrines, temples, etc., were all shut down. as such, humanity was for once deprived of those humanism inclined homilies, sermons, exhortations and speeches which serve as catalysts for human emancipation and domination of the universe. along with these, education sector which is another center of global humanism by means of its advancement of knowledge, technology, critical thinking, etc., was also subjected to greater challenge. referring to this, ―the un educational, scientific and cultural organization (unesco) estimates that 60% of the world's student population has been affected, with 1·19 billion learners out of school across 150 countries‖ (lambert, et al., 2020, p.112). other challenges of covid-19 to global humanism were quite visible in the health sector. this is as patients were overwhelmingly not proportionate to the overstretched, underfunded and understaffed health facilities in many places. this is too as the virus in its infectious nature placed a constraint on the health facilities and workers making it difficult for humanist (services) to adequately manifest. the virus also placed difficulties and hitches in the timely delivery of health needs; equipment, medical supplies and other services. with rumour of health facilities flooding with covid-19 patients, other ailing patients refrained from seeking medical help in the hospitals. as such, many people perished in the quack centers or the discomfort of their homes. globally therefore, covid-19 poses a great challenge to humanism; isife covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing … 7 fostered more by physical distancing that serves as one of the measures of contending the pandemic of the virus. covid19, physical distancing and local humanism the reality of covid19 and physical distancing has challenged each country, each region or each continent to seek, measures for curtailing the effects of, or solutions to, the pandemic from its worldview. each region of the world projects its humanism, which reflects its identity, as it searches for solution to covid19 pandemic. even the production of covid19 vaccines has become a regional thing. a critical study of the history of the production of covid-19 vaccines from different countries in the world shows that none of the countries in africa has made any serious attempt neither to produce any vaccine nor to articulate a plan towards the curtailment of the virus. the case of africa raises serious concern for the events of slavery and colonialism had brought the humanity of the african into question. also, the africa’s underdevelopment, seen clearly in poor housing condition, illiteracy, lack of good medical facilities, corruption and poor leadership, makes the condition worse for africa. it is difficult to talk about physical distancing when people are not even sure of or assured of their basic needs for food, shelter and medicare. no wonder the world focused its gaze on africa at the emergency of covid19. the world has asked: how can africa survive the pandemic? but africa seems to be surviving the pandemic (counting from the two waves of the pandemic that has hit africa so far) as compared to the expectations of many. what is the secret behind africa’s not hit badly by the pandemic like other continents that were better equipped than africa medically? the answer can be found by exploring the african worldview. but the main issue is, what can africa, like other continents of the world, contribute towards advancing global humanism in the post covid -19 era? put in another way, isife(2021) maintains that ―the gains of the covid19 pandemic can be gleaned by what role african identity can play in the provision of solution that can be beneficial to the entire world as well as bringing fame and economic benefits to the continent‖( p.61). african worldview is characterized by communalism or ―ubuntu‖ or ―umunna‖which depicts closeness to nature and unity of beings. it is not only that there is an interaction of beings in african worldview but also that there is closeness of beings to each other: humans, animals, plants; all relate and influence each other. the african ―holds that created beings preserve a bond with one another, an intimate ontological relationship‖ which centers on man as the beauty and pinnacle of creation. (tempels, 1959, p.58) this is why african medicine is not only systematic but also dynamic and mystical. africans from time immemorial have been using plants’ leaves, roots and herbs to cure sicknesses. africans have survived many pandemics through the use of herbs and roots which are at the core of african traditional medicine. some people even attributed the low fatality of covid19 in africa to the use of african traditional medicine. it is in this direction that ufearoh(2020) argues that there is need for ―intensive research in african traditional medicine. if cultural traits partly emanates from people’s creative effort to solve prevalent problems in their environment using available sources within the environment, nothing prevents aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 8 the african from engaging in the research for a vaccine and a possible cure for covid -19 using the available resources in the african environment‖ (p.102). unfortunately, african leaders are more concerned about palliatives and vaccines from other regions than in seeking for solution for covid -19 from the abundant available resources in africa. the argument is that we cannot talk of global humanism without local humanism. thus global humanism is a challenge to african humanism. physical distancing and global humanism in the time when humanism is crucial, physical distancing poses a greater challenge. it thwarted the natural human impulse to draw closer and seek safety in numbers when faced with menace. thus, physical distancing stood against human physical/interpersonal connectedness. consequently, it impaired human physical interaction; a dialectics that fosters humanism. similarly, physical distancing opposed human natural reaction to impending and persistent global hazard as it broke human physical solidarity that inspires collective responses. based on this, deroy, et al (2020) concurs that physical distancing created a dilemma that fundamentally poses a great challenge to humanism and the growth of human societies. the challenge of physical distancing therefore contradicts the fact that human physical contacts are not an extra, which people are at liberty to refuse, but part of what we call normal in human existence. for human living are naturally a collective existence; where people necessarily live not in isolation from others but empirically and rationally in physical contact with others. humans are therefore not completely egoists; but instinctively seek closer social contacts and physically huddle together in the face of danger. severing people’s physical and social contacts, physical distancing direly impacts on global physical activities; entertainment, education and business. de vos(2020) adds that people’s participation in social activities affects and changes ―the number and types of out-of-home activities people perform, and how people reach these activities‖ (p.1). this is as physical distancing extended to closure of markets, restaurants, bars, schools, shops, churches, mosques, temples, shrines, social events and overall social life which serve as channels of projecting humanism but became commonplaces to curtail the pandemic of covid-19. with physical distancing still, there has been disruption in people’s welfare and means of livelihood. according to mesa, the most affected are healthcare works, migrant works, arbitrary jobs, etc., some of which lack modern organization (mesa, et al., 2020). physical distancing therefore impaired concrete interaction through which some of these workers make their daily earnings. it also impaired the tangible interaction and wellbeing of vulnerable groups such as prisoners, elderly, disables, healthcare workers, indigenous people, homeless populations, migrants, etc (mesa, et al., 2020). because people now largely planned and performed out-of-home activities at home in order to ensure physical distancing, there had also been reduction in the number of people who participated in social activities and which negatively impaired subjective well-being (de vos, et al., 2013; ettema et al., 2010). more so, the realities of physical distancing combined with the uncertainties of the future had dire impact on people’s mental health and wellness. it has been noted that: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2590198220300324#bb0020 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2590198220300324#bb0030 isife covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing … 9 a study conducted during the epidemic in january among over 17 000 users of weibo – one of the most popular social networks in china found the unfortunate consequences on psychological wellbeing and differences in the expression of emotions among its users from which inferences about users’ psychological states may be drawn. in a two-week period of social distancing, the number of posts talking about depression, anxiety, and indignation increased, while the expression of positive emotions decreased significantly (li, et al., 2020, p.1) these gave credence to the position of mesa, et al (2020) that ―preventive measures such as physical distancing are crucial but carries long term consequences‖ (p.38). this is more so as physical distancing results in lower levels of social interaction and self-development, and higher levels of stress, boredom and depression (de vos, 2020; brooks et al., 2020). moreover, physical ―distancing seeds the spread of misinformation and can have profound consequences for psychological wellbeing in vulnerable populations‖ (xiao, et al., 2020, p.3). this happens more as physical distancing disconnects people from experts, and exposes them to excess unfounded or inaccurate information from non experts, unreliable sources and commercially driven interests. some of this information from unreliable sources deepens the state of uncertainty co-existing with covid-19, and increases the feelings of insecurity, fear, anxiety, stress, depression and emotional tension that weaken the growth of humanism. in fact, ―fear arising from the excess or unreliability of information about disease can lead to erratic behaviour, trigger the onset of psychiatric disorders, and even increase rates of suicide‖ (tucci, et al., 2020, p.151). covid-19 and physical distancing: the paradoxical challenge to global humanism the challenge of covid-19 and physical distancing to global humanism is more of a paradox. this is in the sense that covid-19 and physical distancing impact negatively on humanism, but at the same time stimulate humanism unto greater height. thus, covid-19 and physical distancing stimulate the substances of humanism; rationality, scientific capacities and potentialities towards resolving global problems. meanwhile, the growth of humanism amidst covid-19 and physical distancing has become more efficient through the instrumentality of information communication technology (ict). this has made the modern world an efficient global village where humanism has largely taken a virtual dimension, and solutions to human problems can now be reached virtually. in the present covid-19 and physical distancing world therefore, the internet, social media and online channels provide an acceptable and effective alternative to physical contact. for these channels now https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s2590198220300324#bb0010 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 10 enable social interactions in the absence of physical contiguity. particularly, social media now make it possible for large number of people to reach out to neighbors, relatives, friends, colleagues, co-researchers, etc., and share ideas, ingenuities and breakthroughs. thus, covid-19 and physical distancing now inspire human greater cooperation and social support through the aid of ict. with the internet and online channels, there is now a refocusing of research and action not only to mitigate the impacts of covid19 but to build sustainable and strengthened human resilience into future recovery (lambert, et al., 2020). similarly, covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing is now leading to best human renovation and improvement of hospital facilities/systems as well as reorientation of health services. this innovation has been visible in human ingenuity towards discovery of covid-19 vaccines, action plans like regular washing of hands, wearing of masks and personal protective equipment (ppe), etc., that stand as reflection of humanism in the modern world. with the present condition, post covid-19 humanism now considers what virus means for future global planning of hospital services, food supply chains, industry, trade, agriculture, education and human relationship. besides, the reality of covid-19 and physical distancing have induced humanity towards identification of potential responses that best address different intersecting risk scenarios and underscores human resilience in future occurrences of similar situation. relying on the impetus provided by temporary shifts in working practices and transport patterns amidst covid-19, global humanism now bothers on identifying transformative opportunities towards mitigating future health and economic crises as well as human personal and general wellbeing. in other words, covid-19 furnishes the present humanism with collective glimpse of alternative possible futures and opportunities. it is on this note that yaya, et al (2020) exclaims that covid-19 pandemic has ushered in a new climate of uncertainty which is fuelling protectionism and playing into humanism narratives. the reality of humanism in the covid-19 and physical distancing world from the discourse so far, it stands that humanism is characterized by human benevolence towards one another without distinction. it is therefore a solidarity that is propelled by naturalism, materialism and human desire to feel at home in this universe (omosolu & inja, 2019; chinweuba, 2020). humanism is thus deep-rooted in human mind and interest, and dwells with other human moral/altruistic acts. based on all these understanding, humanism stands to be propelled by secularism, altruism, morality, distributive justice, rational and scientific worldview. in the contemporary covid-19 and physical distancing world, humanism has become the sole standard as well as determinant of all standards and values. hence, the present covid-19 and physical distancing world have come to place much significance, value, worth and emphasis on human survival. as such, the reality of humanism in present era is visible in the promotion of human resilience, capacities, potentials in dominating and changing the course of natural and artificial conditions. isife covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing … 11 amidst covid-19 and physical distancing therefore, humanism is now displayed in other diverse ways. for instance, there are humanistic efforts by major sporting organizations towards reducing the pandemic of corona virus. along this line, fifa has teamed up with the who and launched a ―pass the message to kick out corona virus‖ campaign. this campaign grounded in humanism is led by well-known football players in 13 languages appealing to people to follow the key steps towards reducing the spread of covid-19. adding to this is the periodic online community discussions and sharing of corona virus issues and challenges. these efforts have indeed triggered online dialogues that presently lead people to devise and identify innovative solutions to other global social issues. thus, people now identify ways of responding to problems faced by vulnerable individuals and groups in low income communities affected by corona virus restrictions and physical distancing. amidst this, global humanity has showcased her ingenuity by rapidly creating online contents tailored to different people. these contents range from free tutorials on social media, stretching, meditation, yoga to dance classes in which the whole family can participate. coupled with these, educational institutions are now largely providing online learning resources for students to follow at home. some people, organizations, etc., ―are already offering psychological assistance via the internet or telephone, and using mobile apps to provide counseling or treatment amid the covid-19 crisis‖ (lai, et al., 2020, p.1). in the context of humanism therefore, the current pandemic crisis presents an opportunity to explore new strategies and to diversify solutions to human problems. so, covid-19 succeeded in creating ―a conscious humanity that would be active in self dialectics (self-consciousness) and self-other dialectics (communal relation and reciprocity) that promote healthy relationship, unity and development‖ in the world. (isife, 2020, p. 128). consequently, the world is seeing many creative community-led practices like physical distancing, regular washing of hands, wearing of masks/ppe grounded in humanism, emerged in response to covid-19 and physical distancing. the real-world examples of such practices are: individuals and organizations donating palliatives, equipments and social services in the communities, delivering shopping to the doorstep of the needy, checking on the elderly, widows and those in need of support. other examples are visible in people with one voice applauding healthcare workers as well as online intra-community solidarity in which local neighborhoods work together to ensure that the most vulnerable in human societies are supported and cared for. this new but positive transnational humanism or solidarity is also visible in ―medical diplomacy where countries have been sending doctors, paramedics, medicines and medical equipment across borders to those countries hit severely by the pandemic and that lacked certain medical expertise and supplies‖ (mansouri, 2020, p.1). the examples of cuba, china and india in italy, nigeria and bangladesh respectively, are good ones in this context. this means that covid-19 and physical distancing actually offer hope for new ways of forming and sustaining solidarity and humanism across cultural backgrounds, faith traditions, political systems and geographical borders. it also means that the pandemic and physical distancing paved way for real demonstration of more intersected, intimately hyper-connected, aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 12 irreversibly inter-dependent nature of our globalized humanized world. and now, covid-19 humanism is set in reconfiguring deeper international relations, intercultural dialogue, equitable capacity human building, intercultural engagement and transnational solidarity in ways that will ensure that humanity is better able to deal with future crises and global threats. conclusion there is no doubt that covid-19 and physical distancing have created a long term crisis around humanism. yet, the pandemic and physical distancing have become global catalysts propelling people towards greater ingenuity that fosters humanism and unveils deep human understanding and compassion towards the suffering humanity. this ingenuity is now visible in the discovery of covid-19 vaccines, action plans like regular washing of hands, wearing of masks and personal protective equipment (ppe), etc., that stand as reflection of humanism in the modern world. similarly, the pandemic and physical distancing have paved greater human recourse to online interactions thereby making humanism more practical than before. on these notes, the challenge of corona virus and physical distancing to global humanism is perceived as a paradox. for the present global condition may be excruciating; yet it propels humanity to the next positive and beneficial level in which ict has become central. the true test of humanism therefore lies with the existence of threatening conditions. the health threatening situation in the world therefore gives credence to the philosophical fact that problems beget critical thinking and fervent solutions that constitute development. covid-19 and physical distancing could thus be said to have emboldened humanity and set humanism towards a better elevation of the dignity of human persons, provision of beneficial human needs, confrontation of future global crisis and threats. isife covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing … 13 references brooks, s. k., webster, r. k., smith, l. e., woodland, l., wessely, s., greenberg, n., & rubin, g. j. (2020). the psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. lancet, 395, 912-920. retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/scholar/lookup?title=the psychological impact of … chinweuba, g. e. (2020). low level corruption in nigerian society: a critical investigation. oracle of wisdom journal of philosophy and public affairs, 4(1), 2640. retrieved from www.owijoppa.com deroy, o., frith, c., & dezecache, g. (2020, april 24). covid-19: the downside of social distancing. science daily ludwig-maximilians-universität münchen. retrieved from https://sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/04/200424132539.htm de vos, j. (2020). the effect of covid-19 and subsequent social distancing on travel behavior. transportation research interdisciplinary perspectives, 5, 100-121. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100121get rights and content de vos, j., schwanen, t., van acker, v., & witlox, f. (2013). travel and subjective well-being: a focus on findings, methods and future research needs. transp. rev., 33(4), 421-442. retireved from http://scholar.google.com/scholar/lookup?title=travel… dukor, m. (2010). theistic humanism of african philosophy: a great debate on substance and method of philosophy. berlin, germany: lambert academic publishing. encyclopedia of social sciences. (1937). humanism. new york, usa: macmillan. ettema, d., gärling, t., olsson, l. e., & friman, m. (2010). out-of-home activities, daily travel, and subjective well-being. transp. res., 44(9), 723-732. retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/scholar/lookup?title=out-of-home... isife, e. e. (2021). a critical analysis of the implications of covid-19 pandemic on african identity. sapiential journal of philosophy. 14, 54-64. retrieved from www.sapientiajournaluniuyo.com isife, e.e. (2020). dialectics of freedom in frantz fanon and its relevance in contemporary africa. igwebuike: an africa journal of arts and humanities, 6(9),118 – 131. retrieved from https://doi: 10. 13140/ rg.2.2. 31258.06083 idowu, l. (2020, may 25). deepening the media’s coverage of covid-19: challenges and prospects. vanguard. retrieved from http://scholar.google.com/scholar/lookup?title=the http://www.owijoppa.com/ https://sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/04/200424132539.htm https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/25901982 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/25901982/5/supp/c https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100121 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100121 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100121 http://scholar.google.com/scholar/lookup?title=travel http://scholar.google.com/scholar/lookup?title=out-of-home http://www.owijoppa.com/ aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 14 https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/05/depeening-the-medias-coverageof-covid jiang, f., deng, l., zhang, l., cai, y., cheung, c. y., & xia, z. (2020). review of the clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19). j. gen. intern. med. retrieved from 10.1007/s11606-020-05762-w jones, c. z. (2020). corona virus conspiracy: the entirety of the coronavirus genomic sequence to assess bizarre conspiracy theories. london, uk: uk express. lai, j., ma, s., wang, y., cai, z., hu, j., wei, n., wu, j., du, h., chen, t., li, r., tan, h., kang, l, yao, l., huang, m., wang, h., wang, g., liu, z., & hu, s. (2020). factors associated with mental health outcomes among health care workers exposed to coronavirus disease 2019. jama netw. open, 3(3), 1-5. retrieved from 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3976 lambert, h., jaideep, g., fletcher, h., hammond, l., lowe, n., & pelling, m. (2020). covid 19 as a global challenge: towards an inclusive and sustainable future. open access journal. the lancet healthy longevity 4(8), 312-314. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(20)30168-6 lamont, c. (1997). the philosophy of humanism. new york, usa: humanist press. li, s., wang, y., xue, j., zhao, n., & zhu, t. (2020). the impact of covid-19 epidemic declaration on psychological consequences: a study on active weibo users. int. j. environ. res. public health, 17(6), 1-5. retrieved from 10.3390/ijerph17062032 lipistch, m., swerdlow, d. l., & finelli, l. (2020). defining the epidemiology of covid-19 — studies needed. n. engl. j. med. retrieved from 10.1056/nejmp2002125 madhukalya, a. (2020, march 30). $20 trillion lawsuit against china! us group says coronavirus is bioweapon. retrieved from www.businesstoday.in. mairi, r. (2020). chambers 21 st century dictionary. new delhi, india: allied chambers. mansouri, f. (2020). the socio-cultural implications of covid-19. retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/news/socio-cultural-implications-covid-19 29/05/2020. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/05/depeening-the-medias-coverage-of-covidhttps://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/05/depeening-the-medias-coverage-of-covidhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-05762-w https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3976 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062032 https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmp2002125 http://www.businesstoday.in/ https://en.unesco.org/news/socio-cultural-implications-covid-19%2029/05/2020 https://en.unesco.org/news/socio-cultural-implications-covid-19%2029/05/2020 https://en.unesco.org/news/socio-cultural-implications-covid-19%2029/05/2020 isife covid-19 pandemic and physical distancing … 15 mesa, c., vieira, o., franco, c., gómez, r., & thomas, a. (2020). covid-19: the forgotten priorities of the pandemic. elsevier maturitas, 36, 38-41. retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.04.004get rights and content omosulu, r., & inja, t. (2019). humanism and environmentalism: a dialogue. nnamdi azikiwe journal of philosophy, 11(2), 87-100. onyekwere, c., & uche, o. (2013). atheism and humanism in a globalized world; the igbo experience. open journal of philosophy, 3(1), 93-100. doi:10.4236/ojpp.2013.31a015 rubin, r. (2020). the challenge of preventing covid-19 spread in correctional facilities. jama, 323(18),1760-1761. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.5427 stumpf, s. e. (1994). philosophy history & problems. new york, usa: mcgraw hills. tempels, p.(1959). bantu philosophy (paris: presence africaine). tucci, v., moukaddam, n., meadows, j., shah, s., galwankar, s. c., & kapur, g. b. (2017). the forgotten plague: psychiatric manifestations of ebola, zika, and emerging infectious diseases. j. glob. infect. dis., 9(4), 151156. 10.4103/jgid.jgid_66_17 ufearoh, a.(2020). covid19 pandemic as an existential problem: an african perspective. filosofia theoretica: journal of african philosophy, culture and religion. 9.1.1. 97 – 112 wilder-smith, a., & freedman, d. o. (2020). isolation, quarantine, social distancing and community containment: pivotal role for old-style public health measures in the novel coronavirus (2019-ncov) outbreak. j. travel med. retrieved from 10.1093/jtm/taaa020 xiao, h., zhang, y., kong, d., li, s., & yang, n. (2020). social capital and sleep quality in individuals who self-isolated for 14 days during the coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) outbreak in january 2020 in china. med. sci. monit., 26, 1-7. retrieved from 10.12659/msm.923921 yaya, s., otu, a., & labonte, r. (2020).. globalisation in the time of covid-19: repositioning africa to meet the immediate and remote challenges. globalization and health, 16, 51. retrieved from https://globalization and health.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s1 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0378512220302346#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0378512220302346#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0378512220302346#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0378512220302346#! https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/s0378512220302346#! https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.04.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.04.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.04.004 https://doi.org/10.4103/jgid.jgid_66_17 https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa020 https://doi.org/10.12659/msm.923921 about:blank about:blank https://globalization/ aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 16 1 a critical reflection on covid-19 palliative saga in nigeria: implications of human greed oliver ozoemena onah spiritan school of philosophy, isienu-nsukka, enugu state. abstract the covid-19 pandemic that is ravaging the world has exposed both the positive and negative traits of the human person; it has highlighted the best and the worst in the human person. it has shown that human beings are capable of both altruism and egoism. as has become the case in recent history, nigeria seems to receive the worst of almost everything. hence, though nigeria is not as badly hit by the virus itself as other countries of the world, the resultant economic effects are apparently more devastating on the nigerian population than they have been elsewhere. this paper examines the controversies surrounding the covid-19 palliatives in nigeria. it argues that the covid-19 pandemic and the subsequent palliative saga that emanated from the #endsars protests in nigeria have exposed the selfishness of most of our politicians and public officials. the main thesis of this paper is that the covid-19 palliative in nigeria was mismanaged as a result of human greed. using the expository and the analytic methods this paper highlights the problem of corruption as it affects the distribution of the covid-19 palliative in nigeria. it concludes that the covid-19 pandemic is a welcome occurrence in this regard in as much it is understood as a call for the re-evaluation of our values. keywords: covid-19, palliative, human greed, corruption, leadership. introduction every eruption of crisis, major or minor, comes with consequences which requires timely attention to contain. the urgency and the scope of the intervention are often determined by the enormity of the crisis. in material terms these come in the form of relief funds/materials which are meant to palliate the physical and economic effects of such crisis. the world was confronted with the reality of a new health challenge in the last month of 2019. news started filtering through that a new virus was wreaking havoc in china. there were insinuations that the whole streets of china were littered with corpses. at first there was confusion as some conspiracy theories linked the deaths with 5g technology. among health experts the belief was that covid-19 originated in bats or pangolins (kandola, 2020). the first cases were reported in wuhan meat market, from where it is believed the human to human transmission started. the world wished and hoped it remained within the borders of china. but gradually cases of the novel virus were reported in other countries, first, of asia, but soon, of other continents. ever since, the world has been engulfed in psychological, physical, social and economic torture. nigeria was aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 2 not spared the experience of the pandemic and its social and economic consequences. the spread of the disease in nigeria necessitated a lockdown which halted every social and economic activities and also occasioned job losses. since 40% of nigerians are said to be living below the poverty line, most of them surviving on daily meagre income, the lockdown brought untold hunger and suffering to the people in this category. efforts by the federal government and people of good will, both corporate organisations and individuals, to cushion the effects of the lockdown gave birth to the idea of relief packages otherwise known as palliatives. these relief packages were understandably meant for the most vulnerable of the citizens. questions have, however, been raised with regard to who got the palliative and from whom. this papers hows that the covid-19 relief materials were hijacked by the politicians and their cronies as a result of human greed. this work is organised in seven sections. the first section traces the history of covid-19. the second section examines the nigerian leadership and corruption in relation to the palliative saga. the third section deals with the distribution of palliatives in nigeria. in the fourth section criticisms against the donation of the relief funds and materials through the cbn and the various governments are presented. in the fifth section we examine the distribution of the palliatives to show how they were hijacked. the sixth section is a critical reflection on the palliative saga and human greed, while the conclusion of the work follows in the seventh and final section. history of coronavirus (covid-19). coronaviruses are a group of viruses that can cause diseases in human beings and in animals. the severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars), which spread from asia in 2002 and 2003 is a type of coronavirus. hence the novel coronavirus was named (sars-cov-2). this virus causes the disease known as coronavirus disease (covid-19). the first reported cases of human infection by covid-19 were in wuhan, china, in december 2019. the world health organization (who) first learned of covid-19 on december 31, 2019(who, 2020). according to who, while some of the earliest cases were linked to a wholesale food market in wuhan, some were not. who subsequently declared the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern on january 30, 2020, and a pandemic on march 11, 2020 (kandola, 2020). reported first in the city of wuhan, china, the virus spread rapidly through asia to the rest of the world. nigeria recorded the index case on february 27, 2020. the victim was an italian who came into nigeria through the murtala mohammed international airport, lagos from italy, and visited some other states, mostly in the south west, before testing positive for covid-19. according to the nigeria onah a critical reflection on covid-19 palliative… 3 centre for disease control (ncdc), all confirmed cases of covid-19 in the country between february 27 and march 17 were imported by returning travelers (ncdc, 2020). by march 27, one month after the first case, nigeria had 81 clinically confirmed cases spread across ten states. the ncdc report also had it that three patients had fully recovered, while one death had been recorded. the numbers kept increasing such that by april 5, the number of positive cases had jumped to 232 with five deaths recoded. the affected states had risen to 14 (amzat et al., 2020: 219). this kept rising with lightning speed until the spread had covered the whole 36 states and the fct. this occasioned a total lockdown of activities in the country. with more than 179 million infections and 3.8 million deaths worldwide as at june 30, 2021(kandola, 2020), what started as a local health crisis in china has now wreaked enormous havoc on every continent of the globe. it has kept mutating, with more deadly variants emerging in some regions and countries, as in the case of the delta variant first identified in india. in nigeria, as at june 24, 2021, the number of infections was put at 167,375, with a total of 2,118 deaths recorded. and while some other parts of the world are either on lockdown, considering it or are just beginning to relax the lockdown, the rate of infection in nigeria has drastically reduced. according to the ncdc data, some states in nigeriaare today covid-19-free (ncdc, 2021). nigerian leadership, corruption and the palliative saga nigeria has been bedevilled by leadership problem right from her independence. this was aptly captured by chinua achebe in the opening sentences of his book, the trouble with nigeria. in his submission, “the trouble with nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership” (achebe, 1983: 1). he goes on to argue that nothing is basically wrong with nigeria in terms of character, climate or physical features. it is lack of responsible leadership that has been the bane of progress and development in nigeria. this lamentation about bad leadership was made as far back as 1983, that is, over three decades ago. comparatively, it was a time when nigeria was paradise on earth. this was a time when systems were still working; when the educational systems still produced graduates who were worth the name, when university graduates got jobs almost instantly. this was the time the economy was working, and the naira had value. this was the time ghanaians were loitering the streets of nigerian cities looking for menial jobs. of course, achebe lived to see that “there was a country.” if one could lament the poverty of leadership in nigeria three decades ago, what should we say about leadership in nigeria today? the failure of leadership in nigeria is glaring in every aspect of our national life. in short, nigeria today exists only for political office holders. little aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 4 wonder why aspirants to such political offices stop at nothing in their quest to occupy such offices. this is because such political offices no longer exist to serve the needs of the people, rather they have become avenues for the winner to take it all. it is as if the most basic qualification for leadership positions in nigeria today is greed. the problem of greed among nigerians, which is most manifest among the ruling class, has actually dealt ruthless blows to nigeria again and again. it is the greed of the ruling class that has crippled nigeria beyond salvation, as it were. this greed explains why a particular individual would embezzle money meant for projects that would benefit a whole mass of people; money which not even his fifth generation could finish. this manifestation of greed among the political elite seems to act as a trigger for the populace to grab whatever they could from wherever they could. this is how the innate greed in human beings has caused corruption to trickle down from the high and mighty to the masses. each one seeks the opportunity to have a bite of the national cake by every means, fair or foul. the level of corruption in nigeria has made her an object of caricature and the butt of expensive jokes both home and abroad. it was not surprising, therefore, however shocking it may be, that the former british prime minister, david cameron, was overhead describing nigeria as „fantastically corrupt.‟ this was in a relatively private conversation with the queen and other political leaders at the buckingham palace (bbc news, may 11, 2016). the nigerian president, muhammadu buhari, could only be shocked but could not but affirm the veracity of the comment. this he actually admitted to the sky news diplomatic editor the next day (punch, may 12, 2016). this was described by bbc diplomatic correspondent, james landale, as a „truthful gaffe‟ as this corresponds to what they and many others knew about the country (bbc news, may 11, 2016). widespread cases of corruption involving public officials (which details we may not bore our readers with since that is not the focus of this paper) only point to the greed which rules the hearts and minds of most of the political and public office holders in nigeria. this greed appears to be innate in every human being but societal systems and structures could either suppress or aggravate this tendency in humans. obviously, the nigerian system nurtures and encourages the manifestation of this trait. this came to the fore in the distribution of thecovid19 palliatives. covid-19: distribution of palliatives in nigeria there is no gainsaying that the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic threw the world into an unforeseen crisis. as countries were preaching and enforcing precautionary measures, the virus was spreading like wildfire. this forced a lock down of public places, including markets and churches. social and economic life onah a critical reflection on covid-19 palliative… 5 were shut down. this had, and still has, enormous economic consequences. businesses were shutting down, employees in the private sectors were losing their jobs, and hunger was taking its toll. expectedly, the international monetary fund (imf) estimates that in 2020 the global economy, in terms of real gross domestic products (gdp), shrank by about 3.5% (alpert, 2021). in most countries, palliatives were distributed to the citizens to cushion the effects of the lockdown. these came in the form of food items and other essentials as well as personal protective equipment which were distributed mainly to the most vulnerable. various countries gave out stimulus packages to individuals and businesses in a bid “to stave off economic free-fall as business [ground] to a halt due to the pandemic” (snyder, 2020).many developed countries calculated the covid-19 stimulus package according to a certain percentage of their gdp, with japan topping the list with 42% followed by slovenia with 25% and germany with 20% (barone, 2020). these palliative efforts facilitated the bouncing back of the economies of these countries after the first wave of the covid-19. although the coronavirus infection in nigeria was, and remains, insignificant in relation to the infection rate in other countries and continents nigeria ranks 86th in the world, according to available statistics (worldometers, 2021) the resultant economic crisis has been arguably more harshly felt in nigeria than in other countries within and outside africa. just like in other countries, it brought in its wake hardships and unbearable hunger occasioned by lockdown of businesses, job losses, and other such effects. and, as always, the worst hit were the poor masses who constitutes at least 40 per cent of the population, with their number estimated at a staggering 83 million, according to a 2019 report (world bank, 2020). as we already opined above, given the economic devastation wrought by the covid-19 pandemic, any responsible government should be concerned about putting in place measures to cushion the economic effects of the pandemic in the form of relief packages. there is also the need to monitor how such relief funds and materials are distributed to ensure that no one who deserves such relief packages is side-lined in the process of the distribution. in nigeria, there were efforts by governments and some individuals and corporate organisations to assuage the effects of the pandemic and its attendant economic crisis. there were donations from large-hearted individuals as well as business and charity organisations, both from within and from outside the country. according to benson(2020), who cited the cbn as his source, 107 nigerian companies and wealthy individuals donated the sum of 25.8 billion naira for covid-19 relief as at april 2020.topping the donors‟ chat were the cbn (n2billion),and numerous others, according to their capacity. all the telecommunications companies and commercial banks in nigeria also donated generously to the covid-19 relief. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 6 moreover, obiezu reports that a private sector coalition known as ca-covid “had collected tens of millions of dollars‟ worth of aid for coronavirus victims and given it to the government (obiezu, 2020).”all these donations made for the covid-19 relief to the federal government were channelled through the central bank of nigeria for onward disbursement. this seems to be the demand of due process, but it also has its downside. criticisms/reactions that attended the donations there were commendations for these individuals and corporate organisations for their generous donations which were described as corporate social responsibility. of course, it is a great sign of solidarity with the masses of the people who are most vulnerable and would suffer the most economic impacts of the pandemic. however, there were also serious criticisms against these donations being channelled through government institutions. these criticisms were informed by the antecedents of corruption in the distribution of resources in nigeria. the political elite in nigeria have lost the credibility of the masses due to widespread corruption in government. in this connection, not a few people questioned the propriety of, and the rationale behind, making such interventions through the government rather than directly or through other means such as churches, village governments, and such likes. not a few bank customers questioned, for instance, why their banks, would donate such huge amounts through the government where it would likely end up in the pockets of few individuals rather than crediting the accounts of their customers directly. even with the explanation that for the banks, as for other corporate bodies, making the donations directly through the federal government makes for better accountability, and that “donating the money through the cbn is simply the most coordinated approach” (benson, 2020) a section of the people still deem it selfishness on the part of these banks and corporate organisations. in this direction, ariche, ikegbu, and amalu (2021: 54) argue “that channeling all the donated funds to the nigerian government is a misdirected one due to its antecedence of unaccountability, lack of transparency and corruption.” in other words, the federal government has lost credibility to receive such donations meant for the poor masses because the people in government have, time and again, shown that they cannot be trusted with the resources that are meant to benefit the public. were the donors’ intentions respected? a pertinent question to guide the direction of our argument now is, were the donors‟ intentions respected? perhaps the reservations expressed by the naysayers was not unfounded after all when we look back at how the covid-19 palliatives were distributed. it is noteworthy that some wealthy individuals engaged in direct distribution of the covid-19 palliatives through churches or village governments. these churches and village governments were more effective not only because onah a critical reflection on covid-19 palliative… 7 they are closer to the people, knowing who needed the relief packages more, but also because they are easier to be monitored and held accountable. with regard to the donations that were made through the federal government, serious questions have been raised about how the relief packages were distributed. the nation newspaper of april 29, 2021, for instance, reports that the senate committee on special duties questioned the minister for humanitarian affairs, disaster management and social development, hajiya sadya umar farouq, on how 32.4 billion naira allocated to her ministry was spent. she responded that only 2.4 billion had been released to her ministry. the senate apparently acted in response to agitations by nigerians with regard to the palliative care (onogu, 2021). in the same vein, a press release by action aid on april 22, 2020 had it that a consortium of anti-corruption organisations, which includes action aid nigeria, centre for democracy and development, and the centre for communication and social impact) under the upright for nigeria, stand against corruption campaign challenged the federal and state governments to publish the list of covid-19 palliative beneficiaries (action aid, 2020). the consortium. this is another pointer to the suspicion with which the masses view every action of the people in government. the press release signed by ene obi, country director of action aid nigeria, noted that there was information gap between the various governments and the citizens with regard to the palliatives in the form of social investment programme (sip), which comprises the conditional cash transfer (cct) and the covid-19 emergency relief fund. the press release equally pointed out that the president directed that the cct beneficiaries be increased from 2.5 million to 3.5 million. although ene obi, in the press release, clarified that the cct started in 2018 and should not be confused with the covid-19 palliative, she insisted that they must be separated and specified so that each beneficiary knows what they are benefitting from. moreover, the consortium challenged all levels of government to publish the value of money received as donations for covid-19 relief as well as the list of beneficiaries. equally included in their demands is the establishment of an easy medium of reporting corruption in relation to the distribution of the palliatives, prosecution of offenders and the inclusion of citizens‟ group in the palliative committee. this press release expresses the sentiments of a great majority of nigerians. it is believed in so many quarters that the palliatives were hijacked by politicians. there are accounts of how these politicians stored these palliatives and were distributing them to their cronies. some others found their ways into the markets. in edo state, it is on record that most of the residents were not aware of the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 8 distribution of any palliatives in the state. they even allege that the palliatives were hijacked by politicians (eranga, 2020: 222).there is also a report that lagos state received from the federal government 6000 bags of rice and two truckloads of vegetable oil for onward distribution to the most vulnerable in the state. this is in addition to a stimulus package unveiled by the state government which was meant to reach at least 200,000 households (agbedo et al., 2020). yet residents of many communities in lagos state bemoan the fact that they did not receive any palliative from either the state or the federal government. in every other state it was the same story of not seeing any palliatives from the government, and where they were distributed, the packages distributed as palliatives were laughable. there were videos in circulation on social media during the lockdown showing the discontentment of people who did receive the palliatives. sometimes it was few cups of rice, few packets of indomie noodles, a tin of tomatoes, and stuff like that. oftentimes people were assembled under inhuman conditions to wait in vain for the palliatives. during the lockdown, the social media were rife with news alleging that the minister for humanitarian affairs, disaster management and social development, hajiya sadiya umar farouq, claimed that every nigerian had received the covid-19 palliative. even the guardian news of saturday august 8, 2020 quoted her as saying that “there is hardly anyone in nigeria who didn‟t receive the federal government palliative care during the covid-19 pandemic period … hearing some tribes crying, especially the eastern part of nigeria and the southsouth that no palliative care was given to them tends to blackmail” (agbedo et al., 2020). the report further quoted her as alleging that everybody in nigeria, including the areas earlier mentioned, received the federal government cash relief in their bank accounts, and that only about 5 per cent, who were children, did not receive the relief package. however, on being quizzed on that, she denied having said so, arguing that “it is impossible to give palliatives to all nigerians.” she said instead that “every state government has received its shares of palliatives for onward distribution” (silas, 2020). the nagging questions remain, who received what, and from whom? what did the state governments do with the palliatives allocated to their states? when were these distributed and according to what criteria? with regard to the above questions, some analysts have confirmed the widespread allegations that majority of those for whom the palliative were meant never received anything from the government. there were claims across the nation that the palliatives were hoarded. and people knew where! hence, nigerians, during the #endsars protests, defied security agents to break into government warehouses and loot food items, which apparently were meant to be distributed as palliatives during the lockdown. this was long after the lockdown had been eased and people were returning to their normal activities. the question that this breaking into the onah a critical reflection on covid-19 palliative… 9 government warehouses elicited bordered on the criminality or otherwise of these actions. however, most of the people involved in looting the palliatives were adamant and vehemently argued that they were taking what rightly belonged to them which were hoarded by the political elite. a certain ojo insisted to voa reporter, timothy obiezu: “we need our palliatives. it is our right. my neighbour almost died of hunger because of covid-19. he used to work as security guard at a government institution, but he was sacked. what do you want him to do? i gave him beans and rice, he almost died of hunger” (obiezu, 2020). both anger and desperation motivated the masses who went about searching out government warehouses and facilities or homes of some politicians to loot these palliatives, or, better put, to reclaim what were looted by the political class. what else could be the explanation for such massive hoarding of materials intended as palliatives to be shared out to the most vulnerable when they were forced to abandon their means of livelihood and stay at home, even if temporarily, if not greed? vivian bellonwu, head of social action nigeria, described this as unthinkable, mean, insensitive and a betrayal of trust (obiezu, 2020). it certainly is a clear index of human greed. a critical reflection on the palliative saga and human greed mahatma ghandi once said that the world has enough for everyone‟s need, but not for everyone‟s greed. the covid-19 palliatives represent an effort to make the resources of the world attend to the needs of the most needy people in the pandemic era. they were meant to benefit the most vulnerable population who work in the informal sector, such as the street hawkers, barrow and truck pushers, barbers, hairdressers, bricklayers, commercial drivers, and farmers, to mention a few. these depend on daily struggle for their daily bread, and most of them already live below the poverty line. given the effects of the lockdown in the lives of this set of people, there is no gainsaying that they were in most need of such palliative care. but these palliatives were entrusted to the ministry of humanitarian affairs, disaster management and social development, the state and the local governments for onward distribution. in this connection, the above words of ghandi should ring in the mind of every right thinking individual who finds him/herself in a position to oversee the common resources. one‟s happiness in such a situation should come from the fact that one is used a channel to create happiness in other people‟s lives. but we know that the joy of having increases by having. therefore, oftentimes people in such positions are confronted with the temptation to divert the resources meant for the public to their private use and enjoyment. this is the role of greed in human life and affairs. unfortunately, this reared its ugly head in the distribution of the covid-19 palliatives. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 10 greed is an animal tendency that is innate in every human being. but just like any other innate tendency that is not an involuntary process in human beings, greed could be mastered by anyone who cared to and worked hard at it. of course, it is known that human needs are multiple and insatiable. the satisfaction of one need oftentimes gives birth to another need, and this could go on ad infinitum. this view was expressed by marx and engels (1947: 16-17)when they asserted that “as soon as a need is satisfied (which implies the action of satisfying, and the acquisition of an instrument) new needs are made.” agbakoba (2003: 69) corroborates this thus: “labour improves in order to satisfy human needs better, but the fact of this improvement enables man to formulate other human needs.” this insatiability of human needs seems to work side by side with the instinct for selfpreservation to elicit in human beings the acquisitive tendency which manifests as greed. but human beings are also social beings. the implication is that there are resources we must share in common. in an organized and civilized society such resources are provided by the government through what the citizens and the physical environment contribute in the form of taxes and natural resources, respectively. hence, we must appreciate the fact that self-preservation transcends the confines of any individual to other members of the society. it is a refusal to keep this in mind that leads to excessive greed and obsessive acquisitiveness. and this played out in the distribution of the covid-19 palliatives in nigeria. according to meher baba(1967: 27), “greed is a state of the restlessness of the heart, and it consists mainly of craving for power and possessions.”understood as an excessive desire for resources, especially for property such as money, real estate, or other symbols of wealth (taflinger, 1996), it goes without saying that greed always contravenes the demands of justice and equity. this is because, as thomas aquinas (1947: ii-ii. q118)aptly put it, “one man cannot over-abound in external riches, without another man lacking them, for temporal goods cannot be possessed by many at the same time.” this view was re-echoed by john locke (1932: ch. 5) who opined that whoever acquires more riches (property) than is needed in his/her life is taking more than his share of the world‟s resources. that is to say that even if one acquires such wealth by dint of hard work, such a person may not be totally absolved with regard to the exploitation of other people‟s labour. yet, strictly speaking such a person may not be validly held accountable for any crimes against humanity on that basis. however, there is a manifestation of greed that is purely a crime against humanity. such is the greed that pushes one to embezzle and divert to one‟s personal use resources meant for the public. it was apparently to this tendency that st augustine (1958: bk xii, 8)referred when he asserted thus: “greed is not a defect in the gold that is desired but in the man who loves it perversely by falling from justice which he ought to esteem as incomparably superior to gold…” onah a critical reflection on covid-19 palliative… 11 the folly of unguarded acquisitiveness is that, as adam smith puts it, “the rich man consumes no more food than his poor neighbour. in quality it may be very different, and to select and prepare it may require more labour and art; but in quantity it is very nearly the same” (smith, bk i, ch. xi: ii). with regard to luxuries, however, smith notes a very great difference. this only points to the fact that our basic needs are all the same. we however tend to rob others of these basic needs when we crave to multiply our luxuries. and, try as we may, we can never satisfy all our cravings. for “man is only partially satisfied in his attempt to have the fulfilment of his desires, and this partial satisfaction fans and increases the flame of craving instead of extinguishing it. thus greed always finds an endless field of conquest and leaves the man endlessly dissatisfied” (baba, 1967: 27). therefore, one has to seek the contentment that comes from a heart that craves nothing since desire is the source of greed and every evil. without this contentment, the temptation to take more than one‟s fair share of the common wealth would always be there. a pertinent question at this point would then be, who received what palliative, and from whom? as already shown above, majority of the vulnerable people, the poorest of the poor, for whom the palliatives were basically meant, did not receive any palliatives whether in relief materials or as cash transfer. this was in part as a result of uncontrolled greed on the part of the public servants entrusted with the distribution of those palliatives, and in part as a result of the failure of the government to put in place checks and balances in the distribution of the palliatives. this paper therefore recommends that strict measures be put in place for maintaining accountability and transparency in the distribution of resources in the country. the anti-corruption agencies should also be swift and impartial in bringing offenders to book. conclusion this paper discussed the response of the nigerian government and people to the covid-19 pandemic in relation to its economic impact on the lives of the most vulnerable citizens. it argued that the set of people worst hit by the economic impact of the pandemic were those who work in the informal sector and depend on daily struggle for their sustenance. these were described as the most vulnerable people. the federal government and various state governments voted some amount of money and received donations in cash and materials to alleviate the plight of those most affected by the harsh economic realities occasioned by the pandemic. this paper focused on how these palliatives were distributed. any responsible government which fulfils its duty of providing for the less privileged citizens also puts in place measures to check any irregularity in the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 12 distribution of such resources. this paper found however that in nigeria, there were no such measures put in place even when various groups called attention to it. as a result, some set of people, as usual, saw in the pandemic an opportunity to indulge that irrational and animalistic craving called greed. they hijacked and diverted the relief cash and materials meant for the poorest of the poor citizens. while they shared some to their families and friends, they stowed others away in warehouses; and these were discovered during the #endsars protests. this desire to convert what is meant for the public to one‟s personal use we attributed in this paper to greed, an innate tendency in every human being which can, in any case, be mastered with much effort. this paper recommended that the government should put in place strict measures for maintaining accountability and transparency in the distribution of resources in the country and strict punishment for offenders. onah a critical reflection on covid-19 palliative… 13 references achebe, c. (1983). the trouble with nigeria. london: heinemann educational books. actionaid (2020). press release: covid-19: publish list of palliative beneficiaries, anti-corruption groups urge government. retrieved from https://nigeria.actionaid.org/news/2020/press-release-covid-19-publish-listpalliative-beneficiaries-anti-corruption-groups-urge. agbakoba, j. (2003). philosophical issues in development. enugu: fourth dimension publishers. agbedo, o., anazia, d., awodipe, t., thomas-odia, i., diamond, m., adeowo, a. & ezeilo, o. (2020). “fg‟s covid-19 palliatives: why nigerians are not feeling the impact.guardian newspaper, saturday magazine (online). retrieved from https://guarding.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/. alpert, g. (2021). international covid-19 stimulus and relief. investopedia. retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/government-stimulus-andrelief-efforts-to-fight-the-covid-19-crisis-5113980. amzat, j., aminu k., kolo, v., akinyele, a., ogundairo j. & danjibo, m. (2020). coronavirus outbreak in nigeria: burden and socio-medical response during the first 100 days. international journal of infectious diseases 98, 218–224. retrieved from www.elsevier.com/locate/ijid. aquinas, t. (1947). the summa theologica. translated by fathers of the english dominican province. new york: benziger brothers, inc. ariche, c., ikegbu, e. & amalu, n. (2021). covid-19 palliative fund donations: altruism or egoism. the nigerian experience. pinisi journal of art, humanity and social studies 1(1), 54-63. retrieved from https://ojs.unm.ac.id/pjahss/index. augustine (1958). the city of god. translated by gerald walsh. new york: double day and co. inc. baba, m. (1967). discourses. volume ii. san francisco: sufism reoriented. barone, e. (2020). how the new covid-19 pandemic relief bill stacks up to other countries‟ economic responses. time (online). retrieved from https://time.com/5923840/us-pandemic-relief-bill-december/. bbc news (2016). david cameron calls nigeria and afghanistan „fantastically corrupt. retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-362860193. benson, e. (2020). updated: list of all companies and billionaires that have contributed to covid-19 relief fund. nairametrics. retrieved from aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 14 https://nairametrics.com/2020/04/18/list-of-all-compananies-andbillionaires-that-have-contributed-to-covid-19-relief-fund/. benson, e. (2020). covid-19: why banks would rather donate billions to fg than credit their customers‟ accounts, nairametrics. retrieved from https://nairametrics.com/2020/04/20/covid-19-why-nigerian-banks-wouldrather-donate-billions-to-fg-than-credit-their-customers-accounts/. eranga, i. (2020). covid-19 pandemic in nigeria: palliative measures and the politics of vulnerability. international journal of maternal and child health aids, 9(2), 220-222. kandola, a. (2020). coronavirus cause: origin and how it spreads. medical news today. retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/coronavirus-causes. locke, j. (1932). second treatise of government. indianapolis: bobs menrill inc. marx k. & engels, f. (1947). the german ideology. new york: international publishers. nigeria centre for disease control (2020). coronavirus covid-19 microsite. retrieved from, https://covid19.ncdc.gov.ng/report/#! nigeria centre for disease control (2021). covid-19 nigeria. retrieved from https://covid19.ncdc.gov.ng/report/#! obiezu, t. (2020). covid-19 pandemic: nigerians justify massive looting of covid-19 supplies. voa news (online). retrieved from https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massivelooting-covid-19-supplies. onogu, s. (2021). senate quizzes minister over n32.4bn covid-19 palliative fund. the nation (online). retrieved from https://thenationonlineng.net/senate-quizzes-minister-over-n32-4bn-covid19-palliative-fund/. punch newspaper (2016). buhari agrees with cameron that nigeria is „fantastically corrupt. retrieved from https://punchng.com/buhari-agreescameron-nigeria-fantastically-corrupt-2/. silas, d. (2020). i never said every nigerian received covid-19 palliative – buhari‟s minister, sadiya farouq, daily post (online). retrieved from https://dailypost.ng/2020/08/03/i-never-said-every-nigerian-received-covid19-palliative-buharis-minister-sadiya-farouq/. smith, a. (1977). the wealth of the nations. edited with introduction by edwin cannan. chicago: university of chicago press. snyder, s. (2020). how the us coronavirus stimulus package compares to those of europe. the world. retrieved from https://www.pri.org/stories/2020-0403/how-us-coronavirus-stimulus-package-compares-those-europe. taflinger, r. (1996). taking advantage: the sociological basis of greed. retrieved from https://public.wsu.edu/~taflinge/socgreed/html#. the world bank (2020). nigeria releases new report on poverty and inequality in country. retrieved from onah a critical reflection on covid-19 palliative… 15 https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/lsms/brief/nigeria-releases-newreport-on-poverty-and-inequality-in-country. world health organisation (2020). coronavirus disease (covid-19). retrieved from www.who.int/covid-19. worldometers, covid-19 live update: 192,305,709 cases and 4,134,801 deaths from the… https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/. 1 covid-19 pandemic: the socio-economic and health challenges to africa. rev. fr. dr. hyginus chibuike ezebuilo department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka nigeria hc.ezebuilo@unizik.edu.ng 08035448298 abstract covid-19 is characterized as pandemic based on vastness of areas to which it has spread within its course. the human to human spread of the virus occurs due to close contact with an infected person, exposure to coughing, sneezing, respiratory droplets or aerosols. these aerosols can penetrate the human body (lungs) via inhalation through the nose or mouth. within a short time, this virus caused an upheaval and unrest across the globe. this study employs the discursive analysis method to evaluate the social, economic and health challenges the pandemic has posed on africa generally. the findings reveal that african countries have been affected in different ways by the coronavirus pandemic with unimaginable effects. the pandemic affects socio-cultural interactions and economic, intellectual and religious activities through the imposed social distancing policies that have different levels of strictness in several african countries. the implication of the findings is that social policies can affect the social and economic well-being of citizens. one outstanding social consequence of the covid-19 pandemic for african citizens is the creation of social anxiety among families and communities in the region. the phenomenon has also shown how vulnerable african societies are in facing health hazards. this study recommends that policymakers should enforce social policies that unite communities in hardtimes, to reduce social anxiety. african countries must strike a fine balance between protecting health, minimizing economic and social disruption, and respecting human right. keywords: covid-19, coronavirus, pandemic, africa, health, infection introduction the corona virus disease (covid-19) has profoundly affected life around the globe. isolation, contact restriction and economic shutdown imposed a complete change to the socio-economic environment in affected countries; and, as fegert (2020) rightly noted, “they have the potential to threaten the health conditions of individuals significantly.” even though this crisis can bring with it opportunities for personal growth and strengthen family cohesion in africa, disadvantages may outweigh these benefits. for instance, speaking with reference to child and adolescent, fegert noted that anxiety, lack of peer contact and reduced opportunities for stress regulation are main concerns (fegert et al., 2020). this applies to every individual more or less. there is also the threat of increase in criminal acts and domestic violence. mailto:hc.ezebuilo@unizik.edu.ng aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 2 urgent research questions include understanding the consequences of social distancing and economic lockdown on the social, cultural, and health aspects of africans, much of whom are already disadvantaged and marginalized. research is also needed to assess the implications of policies enacted to contain the pandemic in various parts of the continent. in nigeria, for instance, there was lockdown, suspension of economic activities, closure of schools, churches and mosques; social distancing, limiting of any public gathering to maximum of 20 persons; request to report self or anyone suspected with corona virus symptoms, compulsory use of facemasks; stay at home; washing of hands with sanitizer constantly under running water; home schooling and so on. there is need to estimate the risks and benefit ratio of these measures in order to be better prepared for future developments. in nigeria, schools and businesses were closed down as well as public places of worship. social contacts were strongly limited and out-of-home leisure time activities canceled. parents were asked to support their children with home schooling, while at the same time working from home. external support by other family members and social support systems fell away. also, as fegert (2020) remarks, in addition to “worries and anxieties related to covid-19, the economic situation has worsened with high and rising levels of unemployment in all affected countries.”these, no doubt, have put so much pressure on the society and everyone was affected including children, adolescents, adults, old men and women, the poor and the rich. the resultant effects were distress and other health problems, crime and violence – some of which the society is still living with today. as the pandemic is evolving through phases, this paper evaluates the impacts these phases might have on africa’s socio-cultural and health situations. the paper highlights some key challenges and concerns for remedy across africa during the different pandemic phases and offers some recommendations that can be adopted. during the acute phase, the main issue has been associated with social distancing, increased pressure on families and reduced access to support services. after the pandemic, economic recession and consequences of anxiety, stress, violence exposure and how to reorganize society became predominant issues. immunization campaigns covering measles, yellow fever, polio and other diseases have been postponed in many african countries in 20020. the introduction of new vaccines has been halted and several countries have reported running out of vaccine stock (boakye-agyemang, 2020). as things are return to normality and restrictions being eased, it is critical that they implement catch-up vaccination campaigns quickly. for as boakye-agyemang(2020) said, “the longer, larger numbers of children remain unprotected against measles and other childhood diseases, the more likely we could see deadly outbreaks flaring up and claiming more lives than covid-19.” ezebuilo covid-19 pandemic: the socio-economic… 3 covid-19 is one of the most serious health challenges in a generation, but it is also an opportunity to drive forward innovation, ingenuity and entrepreneurship in lifesaving health technologies. the pandemic has put a fresh impetus on the need to invest in innovation and to put the right policies and strategic frameworks in place to unleash african ingenuity on the world. indeed, african countries must strike a fine balance between protecting health, minimizing economic and social disruption, and respecting human rights. the study is structured as follows. the first section is the introduction. the second section attempts a definition of coronavirus/covid-19. it also examines the challenges of different phases of the pandemic. the third section reviews some health issues related to covid-19 and how this has posed a challenge to the communal living in africa. the fourth section looks as the challenges covid-19 has posed on african communities and families. the fifth explores some beneficial consequences of covid-19 pandemic. the unfolding of the pandemic in its last phase is the central focus of the sixth section. the seventh section presents a general evaluation of the socio-economic impact of the pandemic in africa. finally, the last section offers concluding remarks and indicates directions for future development in this field. corona virus: meaning and phases the coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19) is a communicable respiratory disease caused by a new strain coronavirus that causes illness in humans (african union, 2020). scientists are still learning about the disease, and think that the virus began in animals (african union, 2020). indeed, adnanshereen (2020) has stated that “genomic analysis revealed that sars-cov-2 is phylogenically related to severe acute respiratory syndrome-like bat viruses, therefore bats could be the possible primary reservoir.” it belonged to the coronaviridae family of viruses. corona represents crown-like spikes on the outer surface of the virus, hence, it was named coronavirus(corona – latin for crown) (adnanshereen, 2020). at some point, one or more humans acquired infection from an animal, and those infected humans began transmitting infection too other humans. the disease spreads from person to person through infected air droplets that are projected during sneezing or coughing. it can also be transmitted when humans have contact with hands or surfaces that contain the virus and touch their eyes, nose, or mouth with the contaminated hands (adnanshereen, 2020). adnanshereen (2020) further explained that the subgroups of coronaviruses family are alpha, beta, gamma and delta coronaviruses. these viruses where thought to infect only animals until the world witnessed a severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars) outbreak caused by sars-cov, 2002 in guangdong, china. only a decade later, another pathogenic coronavirus, known as middle east respiratory syndrome coronavirus (mers-cov) caused an endemic in middle east countries. recently at the end of 2019, wuhan an emerging business hub of china experienced an outbreak of a novel coronavirus that claimed millions of life. this aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 4 virus was reported to be a member of the beta group of coronaviruses. the novel virus was named as wuhan coronavirus or 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-ncov) by the chinese researchers. the international committee on taxonomy of viruses (ictv) named it as sars-cov-2 and the disease as covid-19. initially, it was suggested that the patients infected with this coronavirus induced pneumonia in china may have visited the seafood market where live animals were sold or may have used infected animals or birds as a source of food (adnanshereen, 2020).however, further investigations revealed that some individuals contracted the infection even with no record of visiting the seafood market. these observations indicated a human to human spreading capability of this virus, which was subsequently reported in more than 100 countries in the world. the human to human spreading of the virus occurs due to close contact with an infected person, exposure to coughing, sneezing, respiratory droplets or aerosols. these aerosols can penetrate the human body (lungs) via inhalation through the nose or mouth. within a short time, this virus caused an upheaval and unrest across the globe. the consumption of infected animals as a source of food is the major cause of animal to human transmission of the virus and due to close contact with an infected person (for reason already stated), the virus is further transmitted to healthy persons. meanwhile, the world health organization has characterized covid-19 as a pandemic. in an opening remarks of the director-general, he writes (who, 2020): …we are deeply concerned both by the alarming levels of spread and severity, and by the alarming levels of inaction. we have therefore made the assessment that covid19 can be characterized as a pandemic. pandemic is not a word to use lightly or carelessly. it is a word that, if misused, can cause unreasonable fear, or unjustified acceptance that the fight is over, leading to unnecessary suffering and death. unlike an epidemic which is content with spreading in a particular geographical area, the spread of a pandemic cuts across geographical areas. thus, a pandemic is defined as “an epidemic occurring worldwide, or over a wide area, crossing international boundaries and usually affecting a large number of people” (last, 2001). fegert (2020) divides the pandemic into three phases, and she identifies different psychological reactions within each phase. these phases are preparation phase, punctum maximum phase, and return to normality phase. in the first phase, ezebuilo covid-19 pandemic: the socio-economic… 5 governments enforce social distancing, shutdown and general measure of hygiene in order to contain and mitigate the spreading of the infection. the second phase is the phase when the highest incidence of new cases is reached. this point was not reached at the same time by various countries. some countries seem to have passed this point when many others have not yet reached it. the third phase is the period of recovery from the pandemic, which requires reorganizing and re-establishing services and practices. none of these phases are actually attained together and at the same time by all affected countries. the return to normality phase is not an exception, and indeed, not all the countries have returned to normality even today. those that have returned, reorganizing and re-establishing services are taking different speeds. some countries were more reluctant to suspend the covid-19 policies than others. and of course, some individuals and groups make some gains out of those policies. in general, as fegert noted, measure of containment and mitigation, such as social distancing and hygiene, can succeed in reducing the height of the punctum maximum (number of infected subjects), but with a more prolonged time course for returning to normality. health related risks and our africanness during the recent corona virus disease outbreak in china, the impact of the outbreak on health in africa can be rated as moderate to severe, with depressive symptoms and anxiety being conditions most often observed (wang et al., 2020). this crisis imposes multifaceted burdens on individuals, families, and groups throughout the period. according to fegert (2020), these burdens include the socio-ecological impact of the pandemic, which is understood to be enormous. she noted that the environment of children was affected at different levels including community and family, as well as the individual child itself. since the pandemic was announced, at the community level, there has been disruption of, or more limited access to basic services, such as schools and routine medical care, market, banks, churches etc. in affirmation to this reality, fegert writes: several countries have seen a re-organization of hospital services with provisional care (including re-assigning doctors and nurses not usually involved in critical care). there have been closures, partial closures or reduced services of [in-patient] and day care facilities, with [outpatient] contacts reduced in some places to emergency cases only. some hospitals have been unable to accept new [in-patients] due to the risk of infection (2020). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 6 in nigeria, one could observe a reluctance of people with ill health to avail themselves in the hospitals, and even a refusal to go for medical checkup. this is because, as fegert noted above, there was a reduced service of day care facilities and services and some hospitals were not accepting new in-patients. medical personnel wanted to protect and preserve their own lives. and often, even if a person is suffering from only headache, it would be labeled corona virus even in the hospitals. so people did not feel safe anymore going to hospital even when they were really sick. if one goes, the person might be avoided as a carrier of the virus, and the depression alone coming from this is capable of causing death. one realizes that the common bond of unity and communality with which africa has identified itself through the ages was rapidly moving to extinction. even the immediate family members of a sick folk in the hospital could hardly afford a visit, talk less of touching or staying with the patient. if a person happened to cough in public, such person would be looked at with great suspicion and sometimes, those sitting or standing around would begin to relocate themselves to somewhere else. ordinarily one would expect to get immediate help from people in such instance, but the reverse was the case because everybody wanted to preserve their own lives. the africanness of the africans disappeared. one can then wonder whether the communal life of africa is actually something ontological. moreover, leisure time activities have been limited in most african countries. in nigeria, for instance, children were not allowed to freely use the play grounds, social group activities were prohibited and sports activities were closed too, insofar as it may warrant body contact and breach the rule of social distancing. social relations have been strongly limited to closest family members. in some places, contact to peers was prohibited or severely limited; and, as fegert (2020) rightly noted, this can have a negative impact on children and adolescents given the importance of peer contact for well-being. meetings were not allowed. the only language understandable was social distancing. many african countries have experienced a lockdown of schools. as fegert (2020) pointed out, however, school closure may not have a major impact on reducing infections and preventing deaths. hence, possible negative consequences such as loss of education time, restricted access to peer all need to be taken into account when estimating the advantages and disadvantages of this particular pandemic. moreover, as we have pointed out already, stigmatization of infected people occurred in many places. besides, covid-19 pandemic-related quarantine in several countries could significantly affect mental health. fegert (2020) reports that in a recent review on the psychological impact of quarantine, samantha brooks and colleagues pointed out that post-traumatic stress symptoms occur in 28 to 34% and fear in 20% of subjects in quarantine. additional quarantine-related health problems include ezebuilo covid-19 pandemic: the socio-economic… 7 depression, low mood, irritability, insomnia, anger and emotional exhaustion. the scarcely available data point towards a detrimental effect of disease-containment measures such as quarantine and isolation on individuals. challenges within communities and families at the community and family levels, the pandemic has led to a re-organization of everyday life. all community and family members have to cope with the stress of quarantine and social distancing. school shutdowns have led to home-schooling and potential postponement of examinations including that of the west african examination council and other final examinations. parents have experienced increased pleasure to work from home, to keep jobs and business running as well as to take care of schooling children. at the same time, connection with the wider family who could have been of help was restricted. clearly, then, family connections and support were disrupted. fear of losing family members who belong to a risk group also increased. in case of death, the pandemic disrupted the normal bereavement processes of families. mourning of lost family members, especially in cases where contact with the infected member was restricted or refused also raised several problems and pressure on many families. the pandemic has major economic implications and it put financial pressure on many families. first, economic recession has brought about low socioeconomic status on many individuals and families. in addition to this, other factors such as unemployment, income decline, and unmanageable debts are significantly associated with a decrease in mental well-being. in addition, during conomic recession a significant increase in domestic violence can be observed. quarantine can lead to decreased freedom and privacy, and consequently higher stress. income loss and economic hardship can lead to feelings of economic stress and consequent marital conflict. it may also increase existing criminal behaviors by perpetrators as they struggle to regain a sense of control. exposure to these perpetrators of crime is increased, and the possibilities of victims to escape abusive partners are reduced. lending her voice to this fact, fegert (2020) writes: in the current covid-19 crisis, there have been reports from all over the world about a significant increase in domestic violence. un secretary general antonio guterres pointed out a “horrifying global surge in domestic violence…with the potential to create longterm consequences.” based on this, for the covid-19 pandemic, a worldwide increase in the risk for families and communities is a plausible assumption. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 8 it was also observed that some countries were setting prisoners free in order to decongest prisons and reduce chances of contacting the virus, and that for this reason, anyone arrested by the police could not be detained for more than 24 hours (dickson et al., 2020). all this could add to proliferation of crime and perpetrating of various forms of violence in the society. there was equally an increase of all forms of maltreatment and unlawful extraction of money from innocent citizens by covid-19 monitoring teams such as the police and other men in uniform: recognized and unrecognized (dickson et al., 2020). we have already remarked that disease-containment measures such as quarantine and isolation on individuals can have detrimental effects. one other quarantineassociated threat we wish to mention is an increased risk of online sexual exploitation. with regard to children and adolescents fegert (2020) writes: since the beginning of the pandemic, children and adolescents have spent more time online, which may increase the risk of contact with online predators. due to limited social encounter, children’s outreach to new contacts and groups online has increased. the adults too are not left out. as more adults have been isolated at home, there may also be an extended demand for pornography. europal (2020) has already reported an increase in child pornography since the beginning of the pandemic. in summary, phases one and two of the current covid-19 pandemic represent a dangerous accumulation of risk factors. there was reorganization of family life, massive stress, fear of death of relatives, economic crisis with simultaneous loss of almost all support systems and opportunities for evasion in everyday life, limited access to health service as well as a lack of social stabilization. beneficial consequences of covid-19 pandemic the multiple threats and challenges notwithstanding, the covid-19 pandemic could also provide opportunities. when families successfully complete the initial transition phase, the absence of business appointments, guests and business trips can bring rest and relaxation into family life. several external stressors disappear. mastering the challenges of the covid-19 crisis together may strengthen the sense of community and cohesion among family members. again, more time with caregivers can go along with increased social support, which strengthens resilience (fregert, 2020). in addition, children troubled by school due to whatever reason (e.g. bullying, punishments, or other stressors), can experience the situation of home schooling as relieving. furthermore, mastering covid-19 challenges can contribute to personal growth and development. personal growth is an experience of psychological development as compared with a previous level of functioning or previous attitudes towards life. ezebuilo covid-19 pandemic: the socio-economic… 9 thus, successful management of stress and trauma can lead to personal growth, which in turn reinforces the sense of competence and becomes a protective factor for coping with future stressors. however, environmental factors such as socio-demographics, individual social networks and social support affect the outcome of a crisis (schaefer, 1992). this means that the opportunity for personal growth may vary from person to person and from place to place. nevertheless, fegert noted that “personal characteristics determine stress-related growth as well.” these factors, according to her, include intrinsic religiousness and positive affectivity. the former is suggested to help to find meaning in crisis, while the relevance of the later shows the importance of positive mood and attitude for stress-related growth (fregert, 2020). back to normality in the third phase of the pandemic (return to normality), it will be important to quickly re-organize and re-establish lost treatment with patients and develop strategies to deal with the burden and strain of new patients not seen and not referred during the pandemic. during the acute phase o the pandemic in many african countries, only emergencies have been addressed. offering adequate services to families for dealing with the aftermath of the pandemic is central for reducing long-term consequences of corona virus in the society furthermore, the economic crisis brought by the pandemic could have long-term negative consequences leading to increased family conflict, abuse, theft, substance abuse, rape, suicide attempt, etc. access to health services is also needed to cope with the increased demand in times of economic recession (haw, et al., 2015). as observed earlier, reports are indicating a decline of people using medical services for fear of being infected by corona virus. consequently, after the crisis there might be a sudden surge to hospitals to a possibly overwhelming magnitude. during the acute phase of the pandemic, victims of domestic violence and other abuses may not be noticed due to restrictions and lack of social interaction. in phase three, due to relaxation of restrictions and more contact to others, some of these victims may confide incidents during the pandemic to others. the government should be prepared to offer specific treatment for these individuals, especially children and youths. fegert (2020) rightly suggests that in case of suspicion, specific anamnesis should be taken, and diagnostic clarification made. social-economic impact of covid-19 in africa the adoption of lockdown measures aiming at curbing the spread of the coronavirus pandemic had profound socio-economic implications across africa. the fact remains that containment measure is hardly consistent with the organization of african societies where, as camillocasola noted, informality is the rule. according to casola (2020), a good number of the african populationlives in informal settlements, such as slums or shantytowns; and they survive by means of aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 10 informal economy. perhaps this is due to rapid urbanization which has seen the rapid growth of informal settlements without the basic infrastructure to cope with a large influx of people on top of natural population. the international labour organization (ilo) reported that “informal employment is the main source of employment in africa,” accounting for about 89% in subsaharan africa – the highest rate being found in burkina faso (94.6%), the lowest in south africa (34%) (casola, 2020). a basic characteristic of the informal economy is self-employment, that is, individuals working on their own account and most typically in precarious situations. generally, the covid-19 pandemic will have a dramatic impact on africa’s labor market, leading to a sharp increase in underemployment (up to 30 million jobs could be lost), while the wages and working conditions of surviving jobs could significantly worsen with many workers switching to the informal sector to maintain their incomes (casola, 2020). among the social consequences of the covid-19 crisis, a strong rise in poverty will be inevitable. as casola (2020) remarks, poverty rates were reduced from 54% in 1990 to 41% in 2015, albeit the absolute number of people who live below the international poverty line of $1.90 per day rose from 278 million to 413 million due to demographic growth. regional situation also vary. casola noted that half of the african poor lives in nigeria (85 million), democratic republic of congo, tanzania, ethiopia and madagascar, followed by mozambique, uganda, malawi, kenya and zambia (hosting a further 25%) (casola, 2020). the prevalence of poverty is higher among workers in the informal economy, namely activities such as small subsistence farming, breeding, fishing, and street peddling) who have no salary, social security nor saving accounts. before the covid-19 crisis, poverty rates in africa were expected to decline by 0.71% in 2020 and 0.67% in 2021. on the contrary, the african development bank (afdb) has foreseen that the recession that the coronavirus pandemic generated will increase poverty rates throughout the continent in 2020 by at least 2% and further deepens by an additional 2.5% to 3.6% it in 2021 (casola, 2020). this means that an additional 26 to 58 million people in the sub-saharan region will fall into extreme poverty conditions, mainly in west and central africa – “nigeria and democratic republic of congo will be particularly affected (casola, 2020).” while a vast majority of africa’s poor lives in rural areas, and is directly dependent on farming or pastoral activities, the “new poor” mainly lives in urban areas, possesses some level of education are perhaps self employed in sectors different from agriculture. this may fall back into poverty due to loss of jobs or social security income benefits. casola (2020) is of the view that the fact of informality in africa’s productive system will be the main ground for deteriorating economic conditions. he writes: as a feature typical of african societies and productive systems, informality exposes the ezebuilo covid-19 pandemic: the socio-economic… 11 populations of the continent to serious vulnerability. forced to comply with lockdown measures to prevent the spread of the virus, households that are dependent on unprotected informal wages are at risk of losing their income sources and running out of livelihoods. this will lead to an increase in social inequalities, exacerbating insecurity, and deteriorating the economic conditions of individuals and communities faced with the dramatic choice of either starving or getting sick (casola, 2020). in addition, casola noted that curfews and border restrictions have disrupted supply chains, trade activities and agricultural production. they also limited transportation of goods to markets, reduced the availability of basic food items and intensified price increases, thereby leaving the poor masses struggling to access food. inevitably, both the rural and urban dwellers had to cut down on the quantity and quality of their consumption due to rising food prices; and this have direct consequences on their nutrition and health levels. indeed, the number of people on the brink of starvation is expected to double in africa, with a high share of them in nigeria due to combined effect of the pandemic and other drivers of social upheaval such as fulani herdsmen, bokoharan terrorist movement, violent conflicts and several protests. so, while we are dealing with dealing with the covid-19 pandemic, we are at the same time also on the verge of a hunger pandemic. furthermore, the social impact of the pandemic and its economic consequences in africa pose a serious risk of sliding back in terms of development. as stressed by the african development bank, the covid-19 crisis could move the continent further from the sustainable development goal of eradicating extreme poverty. in order to mitigate this risk, it is paramount for african governments to provide adequate assistance to food-insecure households and invest their financial resources in strengthening social security measures and alleviating the effects of the covid-19 pandemic on the most vulnerable citizens. potentially, the full implementation of the african continental free trade area (afcfta) which will provide countries with opportunities for growth and economic diversification, particularly through industrialization and manufacturing, could be a game changer for africa. by addressing the fragmentation of african economies, in the long run, the afcfta is also likely to boost agricultural output. according to the world (2020b), the afcfta has the potential to increase intraafrican exports of agricultural products by 49% by 2035 (compared to 10% aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 12 growth without the afcfta); while also lifting between 30 and 68 million people out of poverty (world bank, 2019). conclusion the novel coronavirus, first reported in china as an infectious upper respiratory disease, has since spread worldwide presenting one of the most serious global health crises in history with socio-economic and health costs. while the health impacts are directly through contagion, the economic impacts are largely a consequence of the preventive measures adopted by the respective governments to curtail its spread. prominent measures adopted by most african countries include the closing of their frontiers and partial or complete lockdown of economies which among other things have seen the temporary closure of businesses, schools and social services. these measures, however, have generated significant setbacks for african economies mainly in terms of lost productivity and trade. specifically, these measures have significantly strained almost all major growth enhancing sectors of many economies, and ultimately, on their overall income. while the regional and country specific impacts could be similar in europe and asia depending on which sectors were severely affected, due to the continents’ lack of economic resilience and diversification, africa faces greater risks of seriously negative impacts from covid-19 for several reasons. crowded informal urban settlements have made physical distancing difficult and ordinarily could have made africa particularly susceptible to covid-19. this is exacerbated by limited access to safe water, undernourishment, poorly funded health systems and underlying health conditions like tuberculosis and hiv/aids. nevertheless, mortality rates are to date, significantly lower than other regions of the world, probably due to africa’s hot weather and younger population. therefore, government should maintain regular and emergency treatment as far as possible in order to reduce negative consequences. health workers should be aware of the numerous health threats associated with the pandemic and employ flexibility and creativity to ensure treatment during the different phases of the pandemic. covid-19 associated health risks have disproportionately hit the advantaged and marginalized of society. a specific focus should be set on them in order to prevent aggravating pre-existing disadvantages. in addition to emergency policies to fight the pandemic, there is a need to build resilience and improve long-term growth prospects by investing in basic infrastructure and driving economic transformation. urbanization has seen the rapid growth of informal settlements without the basic infrastructure to cope with a large influx of people on top of natural population.the pandemic presents an opportunity for african countries to make provision of water and sanitation a focus of their economic recovery stimulus, and improve a range of development indicators in the process. also the sources of origination and transmission of ezebuilo covid-19 pandemic: the socio-economic… 13 coronavirus are important to be determined in order to develop preventive strategies to contain the infection. most importantly, human corona viruses targeting african traditional vaccines and antiviral drugs should be designed that could be used against the current as future epidemics and pandemics. beside the development of most efficient drug, a strategy to rapidly diagnose covid-19 in suspected patients is also required by means of african traditional medicines. also, there should be caution if not a complete ban on the use of wild animals and birds as a source of food. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(2), 2021 14 reference adnanshereen, muhammad. 2020. “covid-19 infection: origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses.” journal of advanced research, vol.24, no.1, pp.91-98. african union. 2020. “coronavirus disease 2019 (covid-19): latest updates on the covid-19 crisis from africa cdc.” https://www.africacdc.org/covid-19/. accessed december 8, 2020. boakye-agyemang, collins. 2020. “covid-19 hits life-saving health services in africa.” https://www.afro.int/new/covid-19-hits-life-saving-health-servicesafrica,” accessed december 14, 2020. casola, camillo. 2020. “the social impact of the covid-19 crisis in africa.” https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/social-impact-covid-19-crisi-africa27642, accessed december 9, 2020. europol. 2020. “catching the virus cybercrime, disinformation and the covid-19 pandemic.” https://www.europol.europa.eu/publications-documents/catchingvirus-cybercrime-disinforaiton-and-covid-19-pandemic, accessed december 7, 2020. fegert, jorg m., benedetto, vitiello, vera clemens et al. 2020. “child and adolescent psychiatry and mental health: a narrative review to hghlight clinical and research needs in the acute phase and the long return to normality.” child adolescent psychiatry mental health, vol.14, no.20, https://capmh.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13034-020-00329-3, (2020), accessed december 5, 2020. gifford-smithh, m.e., brownell, c.a. 2003. “childhood peer relationship: social acceptance, friendships, and peer networks.” journal of school psychology, vol.41, no.4, pp.235-284. haw, c., hawton, k., gunnell, d. et al. 2015. “economic recession and suicidal behaviou: possible mechanisms and ameliorating factors.” international journal of social psychiatry, vo.61, no.1, pp.73-81. jakkie, cilliers. 2020. “exploring the impact of covid-19 in africa: a scenario analysis to 2030.” https://reliefweb.int/report/world/exploring-impact-covid-19africa-scenario-analysis-2030. accessed december 14, 2020. last, j.m. (ed.). 2001. a dictionary of epidemiology (4thedition). new york: oxford university press. schaefer, j.a. & moos, r.h. 1992. life crises and personal growth: theory, research and application. westport: praeger publishers. schneider, d., harknett, k., mclanahans, s. 2016. “intimate partner violence in the great recession.” demography, vol.53, no.2, pp.471-505. wang, c., pan, r., wan, x. et al. 2020. “immediate psychological responses and associated factors during the initial stage of the 2019 coronavirus among the https://www.afro.int/new/covid-19-hits-life-saving-health-services-africa https://www.afro.int/new/covid-19-hits-life-saving-health-services-africa https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/social-impact-covid-19-crisi-africa-27642 https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/social-impact-covid-19-crisi-africa-27642 https://www.europol.europa.eu/publications-documents/catching-virus-cybercrime-disinforaiton-and-covid-19-pandemic https://www.europol.europa.eu/publications-documents/catching-virus-cybercrime-disinforaiton-and-covid-19-pandemic https://reliefweb.int/report/world/exploring-impact-covid-19-africa-scenario-analysis-2030 https://reliefweb.int/report/world/exploring-impact-covid-19-africa-scenario-analysis-2030 ezebuilo covid-19 pandemic: the socio-economic… 15 general population in china.” international journal of environment and public health, vol.17, no.5, p.1729. who. 2020. “who director-general’s opening remarks at the media briefing on covid-19.” https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-directorgeneral-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19-11-march-2020. accessed december 16, 2020. world bank. 2019. https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/afr/publication/for-sub-saharanfrica-coronavirus-crisis-calls-for-policies-for-greater-resilience?cid=afr_tt_wbafrica_fr_ext. zoellner, t., maercker, a. 2006. “posttraumatic growth in clinical psychology: a critical review and introduction of a two component model.” clinical psychology review, vol.26, n0.5, pp.626-653. https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19-11-march-2020 https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19-11-march-2020 1 political exclusion and domestic terrorism in africa hyginus chibuike ezebuilo abstract many scholars have noted the prevalence of domestic terrorism in africa and elsewhere. scholars argue that ethnically motivated terrorism is caused by problems of political exclusion, and many nation-states have alienated distinct ethnic groups, even under domestic constitutions and practices. this study examines whether the exclusion of ethnic groups from political power is an important contributing factor to domestic terrorism. if political exclusion causes ethnic terrorism, can reforms promoting greater ethnic inclusion and democracy reduce risks of terrorism? global concern over terrorism and how to reduce the severity of terrorist attacks have been growing. although much attention has been focused on transnational terrorist events, most recorded terrorist activities tend to be fully domestic, and often tied to groups with claims against their home government. previous studies have shown that ethnic exclusion and restricted political access can motivate civil war, and evidence indicates that ethnic accommodation and political reform can reduce the risk of civil war. the same logic should apply to ethnic terrorism as well. this line of research is to examine whether political inclusion can reduce terrorism by lessoning motivation and expanding opportunities for alternative actions. this goes beyond the question of whether ethnic groups that are excluded/included engage in more/fewer terrorist attacks, and examine whether resort to terrorism by the group decline after inclusion. keywords: ethno-political, exclusion, inclusion, terrorism, africa. 1. introduction irrespective of the measure of terrorism and estimation method, ethno-political exclusion fuels domestic terrorism, and as nwabunka (2004:23) rightly noted, many countries have alienated distinct ethnic groups, even under domestic constitutions and practices. ethnic groups are not formally deprived of political rights or systematically discriminated against, but often have felt marginalized in a nation-state with a dominant group. some groups have pursued national liberation from foreign domination through political violence, and terrorism. this is a plausible strategy for small groups with few opportunities to take on the state directly through conventional warfare. empirical studies deem the political exclusion of ethnic minority groups to be a significant cause of civil war, rebellions and mass political violence (moore 1998; regan and norton 2005). however, the question of whether or not the political marginalization of ethnic groups motivates and sustains terrorist activity is largely unexplored. to the best of my knowledge, piazza‘s (2012) and choi (2010) as well as choi and piaza (2016) studies are 2 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), the only empirical researches that examine the effect of minority political discrimination on domestic terrorism, reporting no significant effect. thus, with a special focus on domestic terrorism, i extend the existing researches on minority political exclusion and terrorism, contending that political exclusion creates frustration and political grievances among ethnic groups who in some instances resort to terrorist violence in an effort to address such grievances. one may wonder why such ethnic groups would resort to terrorism rather than instigate civil war; this study argues that these groups turn to terrorism because ethnic ties enhance their collective security and because fewer material capabilities are necessary when limiting operations to a local area. when people resent a government that has failed to recognize their tribal, racial, religious or linguistic group, it is more common strategy to withdraw from government control through autonomy or semi-autonomy rather than to jump into an insurgency movement; the former requires fewer material capabilities and less sophistication while still allowing disgruntled people to address their grievances. terrorism, then, is more cost effective than civil war and thus becomes a more viable option for some individuals in an ethnic group that intend to pursue their political rights through the use of force. this paper is divided into eight sections. the first is introduction; the second contains fundamental statements while the third attempts an understanding of terrorism as a concept. sections four and five contain a survey of the effects of political exclusion on terrorism and how this phenomenon is hostile to the african traditional heritage respectively. the sixth section suggests inclusion as a prospect for reducing domestic terrorism, the seventh attempts policy oriented advice through which the destructive effects of domestic terrorism can be minimized or eradicated, while section eight concludes the paper. 2. hypothesis/theses statements let us state our first thesis here as follows: countries with large numbers of people that are politically excluded due to their ethnic background will experience more domestic terrorist attacks. we reason that as the population size of politically excluded ethnic minorities increases, terrorist attacks become more severe and result in higher number of casualties. there are two components to such reasoning. first, we regard numbers of casualties due to terrorism to be a reliable accompanying indicator to raw count of terrorist attacks; while the number of domestic terrorist attacks occurring in a year indicates the frequency of terrorist activity, the count of persons killed or injured in terrorist attacks indicates the scope and level of intensity of terrorist activity. taken together, they provide a more complete picture of overall domestic terrorist activities in a country, thereby increasing our confidence in the findings of this study. secondly, previous research suggests that 3 2021ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … ethno-political exclusion will have a particularly strong effect on terrorist casualties. for example, kaufman (1998:13) demonstrates that violent inter-ethnic conflicts result in higher casualty rates and more frequent atrocities committed against civilians by participants. these findings are not trivial given that recent studies have noted changes between the ‗old terrorism‘ of the 1970s and 1980s, which was motivated by ideology, to the ‗new terrorism,‘ which is motivated by religious and ethnic identity choi & piazza (2016:12). this new trend indicates that while the number of incidents is declining, the lethality of incidents is rising, giving way to our second hypothesis, namely: countries with larger numbers of people that are politically excluded due to their ethnic background will experience higher casualties from domestic terrorism. the terrorist group is not necessarily of an ethnic origin fighting a course for an ethnic group, as is the case with boko haram in nigeria, but much of the recruits will likely be constituted by members of the excluded group who have been nursing grievances against an unjust government. in this study, therefore, we argue that ethno-political exclusion is a cause of domestic, as opposed to transnational, terrorism. domestic terrorism is conventionally defined as terrorist attacks in which the perpetrator and the victim, or target, are of the same nationality and the attacks transpires within one country. transnational terrorism is defined as attacks where the perpetrator and victim are of different nationalities and the attack is either cross-border, launched in a different country from that of the perpetrator, or lunched locally against foreign targets, such as embassies, tourists, or other foreign nationals choi & piazza (2016:13). both the qualitative case studies alluded to above and the theoretical framework developed by gurr (2000:24) and crenshaw (1981:34) depict ethno-political exclusion as a precipitant of domestic political violence and terrorism. in a similar vein, we assert that the experience of political exclusion leads to a rise in localized grievances against the state and sometimes, prompts the formation and maintenance of terrorist movements that select local targets. we do acknowledge the possibility that terrorist groups motivated by political exclusion might perhaps choose to commit some transnational terrorism to better popularize their grievances and political agendas. however, this is a very rare occurrence, mostly due to the fact that it requires a much higher level of sophistication and capacity on the part of the domestic terrorist group. 3. understanding the concept of terrorism the history of terrorism is probably coextensive with the history of political violence. the term ‗terrorism,‘ however, is relatively recent; it has been in use since late 18th century. its use has repeatedly shifted in some significant respects. moreover, in contemporary political discourse, the word is often employed as a polemical term whose strong 4 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), emotional charge occludes its somewhat vague descriptive meaning. the state also becomes terrorists in many occasions to some target or enemy citizens. as a matter of fact, the regimes of totalitarianism adopt terrorism as their method of rule. as hannah arendt (1958:464) put it, ―terror is the essence of totalitarian domination.‖ sometimes, the representatives of totalitarian regimes, sensitive to the pejorative connotation of the word, portray the practice as defense of the state from internal enemies. however, state terrorism is not the preserve of totalitarian regimes. some non-totalitarian states have resorted to terrorism against enemy civilians as was the case in nigeria and several african countries, and elsewhere. all this tends to get in the way of sustained rational discussion of the nature and moral standing of terrorism and the best ways of coping with it. nevertheless, there are two fundamental and related questions with regards to terrorism. the first is conceptual: what is terrorism? the second is moral: can terrorism be morally justified? philosophers have offered a range of positions on both questions. with regard to the problem of defining terrorism, the dominant approach seeks to acknowledge the core meaning ‗terrorism‘ has in common use. terrorism is understood as a type of violence the proximate aim of which is the experience of terror or fear. neither violence nor terror is inflicted for its own sake, but rather for the sake of a further aim such as coercion, or some more specific political objective. but there are also definitions that sever the conceptual connection of terrorism with violence or with terror. with regards to the moral standing of terrorism, philosophers differ both on how that is to be determined and what the determination is. consequentialists propose to judge terrorism, like everything else, in light of its consequences. non-consequentialists argue that its moral status is not simply a matter of what consequences, on balance, terrorism has, but is rather determined by what it is. positions on the morality of terrorism range from justification when its consequences are good, or when some deontological moral requirements are satisfied, to its absolute, or almost absolute, rejection. after the heyday of totalitarian terrorism in the 1930s and 1940s, arendt (1958:23) domestic terrorism continued to be practiced by military dictatorships in many parts of the world, albeit in a less sustained and pervasive way. but the type of terrorism that came to the fore in the second half of the 20th century and in early 21st century is that employed by insurgent organizations. many movements for national liberation from colonial rule resorted to it, either as the main method of struggle or as a tactic complementing guerrilla warfare. so did some separatist movements arendt 1958:25). some groups driven by perceived injustices, political exclusion or some ideologies took to terrorism as the way of trying to destroy what they considered an unjust, oppressive socio-economic-political system. 5 2021ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … this type of terrorism is, by and large, indiscriminate in its choice of target: it attacks men and women of whatever political (or apolitical) views, social class, and walk of life; young, and old, adults and children. it shoots at people, or blows them up by planting bombs in office buildings, places of worship, markets, cafes, cinemas, places of religious worship, on buses or planes, or in other vulnerable public places. and as terrorism has by now acquired a very pejorative meaning, no-one applies the word to their own actions or to actions and campaigns of those they sympathize with. insurgents practicing terrorism portray their actions as struggle for liberation and seek to be considered and treated as soldiers rather than terrorists or criminals. they often depict their enemy – the government, or the agencies of the social, political and economic system – as the true terrorists. for them, perhaps, the test of terrorism is not harms done but rather the ultimate aim of doing it. if the ultimate aim is liberation or justice, the violence used in order to attain it is not terrorism, whereas the violence aiming at maintaining oppression or injustice is. government, on the other hand, tends to paint all insurgent violence with the brush of terrorism. they typically assume that terrorism is by definition something done by non state agents, and that a state can never be guilty of terrorism (although it can sponsor terrorist organizations). for them, the test of terrorism is not the harm done but who does it. when a state agency uses violence, it is an act of war, or reprisal, or defense of the security of the state and its citizens; when an insurgent group or some freedom fighters does the same, it is terrorism. under these circumstances, one person‘s terrorist is indeed another‘s freedom fighter, and public debate about terrorism is largely conducted at cross purposes and to little effect. today, the evaluative meaning of terrorism has shifted considerably. so has its descriptive meaning, but to a lesser degree. whatever else the word may have meant, its ordinary use has typically indicated two things: violence and intimidation (the causing of great fear or terror, terrorizing). the dominant approach to the conceptual question in philosophical literature reflects this. terrorism is usually understood as a type of violence. this violence is not blind or sadistic, but rater aims at intimidation and at some further political, social, or religious goal or, more broadly, at coercion. per bauhn defines (political) terrorism thus: ―the performance of violent acts, directed against one or more persons, intended by the performing agent to intimidate one or more persons and thereby to bring about one or more of the agent‘s political goals‖ (buahn, 1989, p.28). it is the deliberate use of violence, or threat of its use, against innocent people, with the aim of intimidating some other people into a course of action they otherwise would not take. it is noteworthy that the above definitions put aside both the question of who the actor is and the question of what their ultimate objectives are, and focus on the action itself as well as the aim. they present terrorism as a way of acting that could be adopted by different 6 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), agents and serve various objectives (mostly political). it can be employed by states or by non-state agents, and may promote national liberation or oppression, revolutionary or conservative causes (and possibly pursues some nonpolitical aims as well). one can be a terrorist and a freedom fighter; terrorism is not the monopoly of enemies of freedom. one can hold a high government or military office and design or implement a terrorist campaign; terrorism is not the preserve of insurgent. in this way, much of the relativism concerning who is and who is not a terrorist that has plagued contemporary public debate can be overcome; the general traits of terrorism being violence, against non-combatants or innocent people, intimidation, and coercion. meanwhile, this study adopts the definition of terrorism by the global terrorism database (gtd): ―the threatened or actual use of illegal force and violence by a non-state actor to attain a political, economic, religious or social goal through fear, coercion, or intimidation. the question remains in any case, whether terrorism can be morally justified. there is no single answer to this question, as there is no single conception of what terrorism is. philosophers generally tend to hold the view that terrorism that targets non-combatants or innocent persons is much more difficult to justify than that which attacks only those who cannot plausibly claim innocence of the injustice or oppression at issue (and which accordingly does not count as terrorism on a narrow definition of the term). our discussion therefore focuses on terrorism understood as violence against innocent civilians or common citizens, intended to intimidate and thereby to achieve some further (political) objectives. one might try to justify some acts or campaigns of violence of this kind in two ways. one could argue that the victims may be non-combatants or common citizens, but nevertheless are not innocent of the wrongs the terrorists are fighting against. alternatively, one could concede the innocence of the victims and argue that attacks on them are nevertheless justified, either by their consequences or by some deontological considerations. in showing that an instance of violence was justified because targeted were not really innocent, we will have shown that the act of violence at issue was actually not a case of terrorism. this paper will not delve into the broad problem of morality of terrorism. it suffices to note that certain violent acts are truly triggered by social injustices, and they can be avoided by a reversal of injustices on the group concerned. in the long run, the perpetrators of both the violence and the injustice are equally terrorists. 4. political exclusion: an incentive to domestic terrorism it should be noted that piazza‘s (2012) study failed to find political discrimination against minority groups to be a consistently significant and substantive predictor of domestic terrorism when it was evaluated along with economic discrimination; we expect, however, to find a different result in this study as we operationalize political exclusion differently. we find that countries in which certain ethnic populations are excluded from political 7 2021ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … power are significantly more likely to experience domestic terrorist attacks and to suffer from terrorist casualties. furthermore, ethnic group political exclusion is a more consistent and substantive predictor of domestic terrorist activity than general political repression or economic discrimination. when people resent a government that has failed to recognize their tribal, racial, religious or linguistic group, it is more common strategy to withdraw from government control through autonomy or semi-autonomy rather than to jump into an insurgency movement; the former requires fewer material capabilities and less sophistication while still allowing disgruntled people to address their grievances. terrorism, then, is more cost effective than civil war and thus becomes a more viable option for ethnic groups that intend to pursue their political rights through the use of force. furthermore, a terrorist movement which develops from a group of people with social, cultural or family ties provides a relatively stable support system. shared ethnic ties may allow politically discriminated people to organize more easily into terrorist cells, to more readily provide emotional encouragement to their members, and more effectively prevent desertion or a breach of security. that is, ethnic groups may be better equipped to carry out successful terrorist operations as their deeply rooted social and cultural bonds provide an enhanced security and loyalty structure. as domestic terrorist organizations tend to create fewer cells and specialized teams, they are smaller in size than international terrorist organizations which often operate in several countries (choi & piazza, 2016). there is also a micro-foundational argument to be made linking the political exclusion of ethnic minorities to the increased probability that members from the excluded community will engage in terrorism. terrorism is frequently defined as a form of political violence perpetrated against civilians. research by goodwin (2006) indicates that members of terrorist movements hailing from segments of society experiencing repression by the government frequently opt to target other civilians who they perceive as ‗complicit‘ with, or as benefiting from government policies, particularly if complicit citizens are viewed as significantly more powerful ‗others.‘ we use this framework to anticipate that radicalized individuals excluded from political life due to their ethnic background are, therefore, more likely to see the use of terrorist attacks against ‗complicit‘ citizens – members of the ethnic majority – as legitimate behavior. note that several case studies find the political exclusion of ethnic groups to be an import and precipitating factor for the formation of terrorist movements, community support for terrorism, and the maintenance of terrorist campaigns (for a summary, see laqueur, 1999). for example, formal and informal barriers to influence representation in government have been credited with starting and fueling kurdish terrorism in iraq, turkey and iran, moro terrorism in the philippines, the basque eta movement in spain (choi & piazza, 2016). 8 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), survey research by nwabunka (2015:34) finds that political – along with socioeconomic – exclusion fosters feelings of alienation among south east of nigeria and helps to drive radicalization and support for extremism by some members of the area. other terrorist movements nominally motivated by different concerns frequently invoke ethnic issues centering on political marginalization and exclusion as a core driving force. for example, the maoist naxalite movement in india began in the late 1960s as a non-sectarian urban guerilla movement aiming to foment a communist insurrection in the state of west bengal. however, when the communist party of india took power in the state legislature of west bengal, the naxalites shifted their struggle to the disenfranchisement of the aboriginal population living in the rural areas across south and eastern india (choi & piazza, 2016). one expect exclusion to most significantly affect the local, rather than the transnational, environment for political violence. although domestic terrorism is more pervasive than transnational terrorism and results in substantially more casualties (choi & piazza, 2016), it has, strangely, received less scholarly focus. we argue that the political exclusion of ethnically different people within a country increases the propagation of disgruntled individuals who, in the absence of access to executive power via orderly and nonviolent means are more likely to support the use of domestic terrorism to address grievances. one may suggest that the turn to terrorism is more likely if an excluded population consists of several smaller groups, whereas one large excluded group is more likely to instigate rebellion. by the same token, it is not difficult to imagine that a large excluded group would engage in domestic terrorism, as opposed to insurrection, because they do not necessarily possess a united military power capable of challenging the government. simply put, whether an excluded population consists of one large ethnic group or many smaller ones, we expect domestic terrorism to arise in most cases where such groups are politically excluded due to their ethnic background. we find that the political exclusion of ethnic groups is a more significant and substantive predictor of domestic terrorism than general restriction of political participation (see li 2005) or minority economic discrimination (see pizza, 2012), a finding which holds true even after accounting for a possibility of reverse causality. what follows is an assessment of how previous studies are related to our research topic. while the role of ethno-political exclusion as a precipitant of terrorism has been rarely addressed in the context of analysis, related topics, such as the role of regime type and restriction and/or tolerance of general political participation, have been widely discussed and examined. though empirical research has generally found that domestic regimes experience more terrorism than do dictatorships (e.g., pizza 2008), a frequently cited study by li (2005) determined that some elements of democratic institutions promote terrorism, while others significantly reduce it. li found that constraints on executive power, a 9 2021ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … hallmark of democratic rule, actually make states more likely to experience transnational terrorist attacks; however, he also found that countries with higher rates of popular political participation experience fewer terrorist incidents, suggesting that broadening democratic participation will reduce rates of terrorism (see also chenowet, 2010). more importantly, li‘s political participation variable (through voting) may be misconstrued as a feature that leads to a decrease in transnational terrorism when it may have only a spurious effect. li‘s study conceptualizes that the higher the voting rate in democracies, the less likely transnational terrorism is to occur (li, 2005). however, because political nonparticipation (i.e., no voting) is pervasive within many full-fledged democracies such as the u.s., but less so within some emerging democracies like nigeria, the high level of political participation may not necessarily be associated with a low level of terrorist incidents (see deluca, 1995). furthermore, as powell (1982) properly points out, the voter turnout rate is affected by many institutional and attitudinal factors and may have little to do with whether citizens have a reasonable chance to have their interests represented through elected officials. simply put, the actual patterns of political participation through voting are quite complex and may vary from country to country. this study argues that political participation may not affect terrorism. low voting rates may simply indicate the prevalence of political apathy; political exclusion, on the other hand, exacerbates terrorism because it is likely to compel ethnic groups to fight for the political rights of which they are deprived. in this context, we expect that the political status of ethnic communities – the degree to which the political system in their home country integrates them into or excludes them from political decision making – is a more likely causal trigger for domestic terrorism than the overall measure of rates of political participation. recent research by piazza (2011) finds that countries qualified by economic discrimination against minority groups – defined using data from the minorities at risk (mar) database as groups that collectively suffer from disadvantages in income, housing, employment and unequal access to government social services – experience higher levels of domestic terrorism. while we expect our research to confirm the above, we have theoretical reason to suspect that ethno-political exclusion is a distinctly strong and consistent predictor of terrorism even while considering the possibility of economic discrimination against minority groups. for example, research by fox (1999, 2000) uses gurr‘s basic theory of exclusion, grievance, group identity and mobilization to link cultural identity-based grievances to political violence. for fox, cultural identity (he focuses mainly on ‗religious cultural communal identities‘) are essential to people‘s everyday lives. when they are threatened, or disparaged, potent group grievances are produced that are easily manipulated by 10 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), extremists; this explains why conflicts over religious identity often result in higher levels of political violence. juergensmeyer (1993) and rapoport (1991) make similar observations about the intensity of conflicts over religious and cultural identities, and identify such conflicts as prime vehicles for terrorism. in this study, one regards the political exclusion of ethnic minorities to be an affront on group identity insofar as excluded groups share similar religious and cultural heritages. we then argue that when their access to state power is deprived, these groups are likely to express high levels of grievances and intensified resentment which will, then, motivate the turn toward domestic terrorism. undoubtedly, the experience of economic discrimination will also produce collective grievances as distinct from motivations of identity politics and, accordingly, control for minority economic status in our empirics. there is a strong theoretical base to support the notion that countries with large ethnic populations excluded from political power would experience higher levels of domestic terrorist activity. gurr‘s (2000) work on deprivation as a root precipitation of riots, rebellion and civil war helps to provide some of the theoretical motivation for our assertion that political exclusion due to ethnicity is likely to lead the excluded to support or engage in domestic terrorism. gurr argues that when ethnic and religious – and, in principle, socioeconomic – subgroups within society face collective political and economic deprivations, such as discrimination or lack of opportunities to participate in mainstream political or economic life, several transformations occur, which make political violence more likely. initially, core anti-status quo grievances are formed and enhanced among group members by the experience of exclusion. this experience of grievance prompts the group to develop an enhanced sense of collective identity as well as a strong sense of alienation from the ethnic or religious majority in society, which, in turn, only serves to further reinforce the salience of group grievances. then, enhanced group identity, alienation, and salient group grievances are exploited by elites within the community to radicalize members and mobilize opposition – both nonviolent and violent – to the state and status quo (choi & piazza, 2016). though gurr is primarily interested in explaining the onset of episodes of mass political violence like rebellions, the thrust of his argument has been applied by other scholars to the formation of terrorist movements within aggrieved ethnic populations and the mobilization of community support for terrorism. work by crenshaw (1981) maintains that regimes characterized by political exclusion of ethnic minority groups are particularly likely to experience terrorism. the fact is that when ethnic communities experience political discrimination and formal and informal barriers to equality, crenshaw (1981:383) specifically depicts this situation as ethnic minorities…that are discriminated against by 11 2021ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … the majority population,‘ they develop grievances against the state and larger society. these grievances fuel the construction of social protest movements seeking representation and political change. choi and piazza write: fringe elements within the community will demand that direct action take place outside of mainstream governing institutions and processes and will, in extreme cases, advocate for terrorist violence. in the face of state unresponsiveness and continued repression, they will siphon community support away from mainstream nonviolent leaders and will cultivate their capacity to commit armed attacks (2016). not surprisingly, the demands for inclusion or equal treatment that characterize the social protest movement will grow into stipulations for wider sociopolitical change, for greater ethno-political autonomy and/or calls for irredentism and independence. this change in demands is easily manipulated by extremists, greatly radicalizes the community, and raises the likelihood of involvement with terrorist movements. 5. political exclusion is inimical to the african obviously, the issue at stake in ethno-political exclusion is unity and inclusiveness. the founding fathers, of the organization of african unity (o.a.u), according to nyerere, set themselves two major objectives, namely the total liberation of africa from colonialism and the unity of africa. he regrets that the reality is that ours is the poorest and weakest continent in the world, and that our weakness is pathetic. nyerere (1968:54) argues: unity will not end our weakness, but until we unite, we cannot even begin to end that weakness. so this is my plea to the new generation of african leaders and african peoples: work for unity with the firm conviction that without unity, there is no future for africa. he noted unequivocally his rejection of the glorification of the nation-state we inherited from colonialism, and the artificial nations we are trying to forge from that inheritance. for the implication is that we are all africans trying very hard to be ghanians or tanzanians, which is impossible. for him, the outside world hardly recognizes our ghanianess or tanzanian-ness. what is recognized is our africanness nyerere (1968:34), which is being-with, and this is fundamentally hostile to political exclusion and its sister, terrorism. 12 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), that is the way we – the people of africa are all being perceived: as brothers. so, accepting the fact that we are all africans: all nigerians, all ghanians, etc (and not that i am from yoruba or ashanti) gives you a much worthwhile challenge than the current desperate attempts to fossilize africa or its various countries, into the wounds inflicted upon it by the vultures of imperialism. this is rather shameful; and we should not be proud of our shame. we must reject the return to colonialism or to the tribes. we must reject sociopolitical exclusion of our brothers. for there is richness of culture out there which we must do everything we can to preserve and share. an african, no doubt, has a distinctive outlook on life and a distinctive cultural identity. individualism and capitalism are foreign to african traditional society and the african way of life which is communalistic. africans have their own identity derived from a common heritage and different from the european culture, the european values and the european identity. the african for instance is truly religious. he understands that we cannot be truly human without being religious. this is unlike the european who tends to be more inclined to science than religion. the african identifies himself only in the ―we‖ unlike the european who tends to emphasize the ―i‖ at the detriment of the ―we.‖ from the ongoing, it is clear that the traditional african society is not based on conflict, struggle or tension but on what nyerere calls ‗familyhood,‘ that is, family relationship nyerere (1968:35). this, for him is the root of authentic african socialism. but in the modern world, this ‗familyhood‘ will have to be extended beyond the confines of the extended family, beyond the confines of the tribe; and made to embrace the whole society, the whole country, the whole of africa, and the whole human race. the capitalistic spirit of acquisition, individualism, the exploitation of man by man, class struggle, political exclusion and conflicts will all be excluded from society. inequality will be eliminated and everybody will be prepared to work for the good of the community in any capacity. thus, the individual feels liberated, and only then will he pursue the goals of development and not those of conflicts and violence. the future of africa, the development and modernization of africa, is linked with its decolonization and detribalization. indeed, many africans, especially political leaders, had a vested interest in keeping africa divided. hence, they promote the course for the return to the tribe. that kind of political and social atavism spells catastrophe for africa and should be avoided. indeed, it would be the end of any kind of genuine development for africa; and it would fossilize africa into a worse situation than the one in which we are. indeed, tribal atavism would be giving up any hope for african country and for africa in general. for africa has more need of unity and the strength that comes from unity than europe.ours should be a commitment to the practice of shared power and social wealth and the work necessary to achieve wealth. the government of a people in democratic scenario belongs to the people and not to a faction. in fact, sharing of power and wealth 13 2021ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … are other forms of communitarian exchange. but it is essential because without the principle and practice of sharing power and wealth, the social conditions for exploitation, oppression and inequality as well as terrorism and other forms of violence increased. the insistence on an african identity is, therefore, a worthwhile corrective against the phenomenon of political exclusion. the african identity is based on the assumption of human equality, on the belief that it is wrong for one person or tribe to dominate or exploit another, and on the knowledge that every individual hopes to live in a society as a free person able to live a decent life, in conditions of peace with his or her neighbour. it is above all human centered. it is concerned principally with the wellbeing, happiness and development of the human person; and it is in the context of shared political inclusion that the conditions for such wellbeing, happiness and development are best achieved. 6. prospects for reducing domestic terrorism through political inclusion political inclusion measures the extent to which all members of a society are able to access the institutions of democracy. this is the idea that every citizen, regardless of class, age, gender, group, culture and ethnic or religious background should have an equal right and opportunity to engage with and contribute to the functioning of the government institutions and processes (bhojwani, 2015). for immigrants and ethnic minorities, this access allows them to be seen, be heard and be counted. it is important to distinguish between individual access and group access, specifically as it relates to minority groups. for example, if one individual from these groups, by virtue of her social or economic standing, is able to run for office, or participate in civil leadership, we cannot assume that a society is politically inclusive. a more accurate measure of political inclusion is the ability of any individual, regardless of her socioeconomic background or ethnicity, to access the levers of political power. what are the levers of political power that we need to ensure anyone can access? for the purpose of this study, let us look specifically at the ability and opportunity to be represented in government (president, president‘s cabinets, ministers, chief of staff, etc) and to have voice in policymaking. these forms of inclusion allow us to be counted, be seen and be heard. our democracy is strong when everyone participates. lower levels of participation and representation weaken our democratic institutions, preserving power in the hands of a few – leaders, voters, and donors. these political elites then shape policy in their interests, rather than in the interests of the majority. when a society is diverse in ethnicity, in religion, etc, its leaders need to reflect those diverse perspectives. this representation is not simply ‗for show.‘ to cast our votes, to speak our minds, and to hear our experiences reflected in policy contribute to our sense of inclusion, our ability to participate, our access to power. if we don‘t feel our participation is welcome or possible, we feel 14 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), marginalized and silenced. in the short-term, that can contribute to isolation and misunderstanding. in the long-term, it can contribute to radical tension and civil unrest. the challenge of integrating diverse populations into democracies often designed to serve the privileged few might seem daunting. but at its core, political integration or inclusion is rooted in three values: authenticity, patriotism, and accountability. this is the true nature of a civil society. specifically, policymakers can ensure that these values are embedded into democratic institutions by going beyond diversity and representation to inclusion and equity. societies whose political institutions are more inclusive and participatory tend to be more peaceful and resilient, just as societies practicing exclusion tend to be more vulnerable to fragility and conflict. inclusive political processes are crucial to sustaining peace and conflict prevention, as they contribute to remedying structural inequalities and other root causes of conflict. democracy is more likely to develop and endure when all segments of a society are able to participate and influence political outcomes without suffering bias or reprisal. but in many new and emerging democracies, large portions of the population are excluded from politics based on their ethnicity. sometimes this exclusion is only implicit and not explicit. nevertheless, these groups are practically marginalized and denied access executive powers of the society. our argument is rooted in an analytic perspective wherein non-state actors choose terrorism to coerce a government into granting concessions. if ethnic exclusion motives resort to terrorism on behalf of ethnic groups, then shifts away from discrimination and towards inclusion should also have the potential to reduce incentives for terrorist attacks, raise the attractiveness of other, non-violent strategies for expressing grievances, and undermine the ability of terrorist organizations to recruit active participants.previous research has tended to assume a causal symmetry, whereby inclusion must have the opposite effect of exclusion, and the effects of changes towards inclusion simply follow from the difference in levels of terrorism between groups that are already politically included and groups that are excluded from access to political power. it appears that violence can be difficult to eradicate altogether, especially when there is a history of ethnic terrorist activity. however, even if we see more attacks by the groups, the overall number of terrorist attacks generally declines after inclusion. our analysis provides considerable support for the claim that domestic terrorism declines in response to political inclusion. some scholars have examined the relationship between ethnic diversity and terrorism and find at best limited evidence for a relationship. a state could have limited ethnic diversity but high exclusion, or high diversity without political exclusion of any groups, as in contemporary south africa (gleditsch and polo). yet, unlike ethnic demography, the political status of an ethnic group can change dramatically, as shown by the example of 15 2021ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … south africa pre/post-apartheid. however, in a more recent study using information from the ethnic power relations data, choi and piazza (2016) demonstrate that countries with large politically excluded ethnic populations are more likely to experience terrorist attacks and suffer more casualties from terrorism. the size of the ethnically excluded population is a clear advance on the binary indicators of discriminated or disadvantaged groups, and better reflects motives and opportunities for mobilization and resort to terrorism. yet, focusing on countries at large obscures the role of group agency and how the political status of an ethnic group affects behavior. for example, if both ethnic and other grievances stem from governments that are generally exclusive, then we may simply see more terrorism in general in countries with ethnic exclusion, but not necessarily ethnically motivated terrorism perpetrated by the excluded group. as an extreme example of misplaced agency, we could see organizations associated with dominant groups using terrorism to intimidate excluded groups, perhaps to prevent political mobilization. plausible examples of this include hate crime against minority groups in the united states and south africa. this study applies a group perspective to domestic terrorism, expecting that ethnic groups have potential grievances or motivations to engage in terrorism when they are excluded from political influence or lack autonomy. we believe that the relationship between ethnic exclusion and violence should apply even more strongly to terrorist violence than to civil war, giving differences in the opportunities for and the feasibility of attacks. the wide resource symmetries between ethnic groups and the state should make organizations linked to ethnic groups particularly likely to engage in terrorism, as the covert nature of terrorist tactics makes it possible to evade state repression and target more powerful opponents when conventional warfare is unrealistic or unlikely to be effective (see findley and young, 2012). now, existing research has looked only at how current ethnic exclusion from political power is associated with terrorism and not whether changes away from active discrimination or towards inclusion can reduce domestic terrorism. if ethnic exclusion induces stronger incentives for terrorism, then we should also expect shifts in the direction of inclusiveness to reduce the motivation for terrorism. the above existing arguments on the effects of exclusion could be read as suggesting that any reduction in exclusion or move towards inclusion should likewise lessen terrorist activity. but this issue thus far has not attracted much direct theoretical or empirical attention. as we have observed, inclusion may also have limited ability to reduce terrorism when violent ethnic organizations have been established. reforms to bring greater inclusion could come in two ways. first, and most directly, we can have group-specific inclusion, or changes in the political status of an ethnic group 16 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), previously disadvantaged relative to a politically privileged ethnic group. group-specific inclusion can include granting access to power for the group at the executive level, concessions offering regional autonomy, or reduction in overt discrimination against the group. improvements in the political status of an ethnic group should reduce terrorist attacks by lessening motives for violent action. changes in political status also will influence the ability of ethnic organizations to recruit for political violence. from our analytical perspective, any concessions towards greater political inclusion should satisfy some group members and induce substitution away from violence after inclusion. existing models of the growth trajectory of terrorist organizations show that attacks over time are shaped by recruitment (gleditsch and polo). given some rate of attrition, organizations with better prospects for sustained recruitment are able to carry out more attacks, at a higher frequency, and wage more persistent terrorist campaigns. thus, organizations who seek to continue violence on behalf of ethnic group will find it difficult to recruit participants after political inclusion, as long as it satisfies a sufficient number of individuals in their audience. this should lead to a decline in the ability of the organization to maintain a high number of terrorist attacks. indeed, gurr (2000) argued that greater inclusion has promoted a waning of ethnic warfare, and cederman et al. (2016) demonstrate more systematically that ethnic political inclusion appears to reduce the risk of ethnic conflict onset and promote conflict termination. 7. some policy oriented advice/recommendation in reacting to the inscrutable phenomenon of domestic terrorism, governments should reverse the cause of grievances by recourse to political inclusion. if political exclusion causes ethnic terrorism, it follows that promoting greater ethnic inclusion and democracy will, at least, reduce terrorist risks. we find that countries in which no ethnic populations are excluded from political power are significantly more likely to experience relative peace. they will likely be free from domestic terrorist attacks and from suffering from terrorist casualties. moreover, walsh and piazza‘s (2010) study produced robust findings, showing that countries with higher levels of human right protection experience less terrorism. our models therefore include the measure of respect for physical integrity rights – the right not to be abused or harmed – used by walsh and piazza (2010). our expectation is that it will be a negative predictor of terrorism because promotion of physical integrity will reduce the level of abuse and thus produce fewer grievances. again, choi (2010) demonstrates that when an independent judiciary with fair-minded judges and police officers is present in a rule of law society, the risk of terrorism is small. similarly, findley and young (2011) posit that independent judiciaries make government commitments seem more credible, thereby dis-incentivizing the use of terrorism. consistent with these findings, we expect that the presence (or absence) of an independent judiciary is likely to decrease (or increase) the frequency of terrorist incidents. 17 2021ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … several recent studies also consider the effects of poverty and economic development on terrorism (e.g., li, 2005). when a large percentage of a given country‘s population lives below the poverty line, terrorist groups may find it easier to recruit the disgruntled. people whose basic needs, such as clean water, nutrition, health care, education, clothing and shelter, are not fulfilled find fault with those who discriminate against their social welfare, namely the government and the rich. for this reason, economic development is viewed as an important factor for the control of terrorism. furthermore, countries with large populations often find it difficult to provide adequate levels of security measures, resulting in greater vulnerability to terrorist plots and attacks (eyerman, 1998). in fact, savun and philips (2009) find evidence that highly populated countries experience more domestic terrorist incidents. with this in mind, the population variable is projected to increase the rate of terrorism due to the relative difficulty of successfully policing a large population. the more all the citizens are given free access to political power, however, the less vulnerable to domestic terrorism a populated country will be. 8. conclusion while quantitative research in academic and policy circles has examined transnational terrorism and civil and interstate wars, research on the causes of domestic terrorism is severely lacking. indeed, a serious limitation to the development of terrorism literature thus far has been the lack of domestic terrorism data and the absence of a probe into the connection between political grievances and domestic terrorism. this has slowed the accumulation of required knowledge regarding the relationships between domestic-level political phenomena (e.g. the degree of inclusiveness of the political system of a country) and political violence. given its destructive impact on the daily functioning of human life and on national economies, a deeper probe of domestic terrorism is necessary. this study is one of the philosophical studies to conceptualize political exclusion as a root cause of domestic terrorism, and as such, it will hopefully serve as a stepping stone towards increased research interest in the neglected area of domestic terrorism and its motivations. questions of nationalism, sectarianism, ethnic and communal violence, and the collapse of states came to dominate academic analysis and political debates. the question of the possibility of a meaningful nation, in which all citizens with common national identity that overcome regional, ethnic, religious, clan, and other tensions, becomes critical. we must look back to the idea of african identity as being-with and see in it the deliberate construction of nationalist narrative. the european‘s underpinnings of the idea of communal living are perhaps less important than the call for nation building and the humanitarian agenda for justice and peace the african heritage promises. this study has demonstrated that, irrespective of the measure of terrorism and estimation method, ethno-political exclusion fuels domestic terrorism. when people are 18 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), excluded from state power due to their ethnic background, they are more likely to resort to domestic terrorism in an effort to solve issues and avenge grievances. moreover, this study finds that the size of the politically excluded ethnic population is a more consistent predictor of patterns of domestic terrorism than the general level of political participation in a country or the degree of economic discrimination suffered by ethnic minorities. the results of this study suggests that ethnic group political exclusion is a key element in the generation of domestic terrorism and, therefore, policies aimed at fostering inclusiveness could be a useful counterterrorism tool. 19 2021ezebuilo political exclusion and domestic terrorism in … references arendt, hanna. (1958). the origin of totalitarianism. cleveland: the world publishing. bauhn, per. (1989). ethical aspects of political terrorism: the sacrificing of the innocent. lund: lund university press. cederman, l.e, hug, s., et al. (2016). ―territorial autonomy in the shadow of conflict: too little, too late?‖ american political science review 109(2), pp.354-370. chenowet, erica. (2010). ―domestic competition and terrorist activity.‖ journal of politics 72(1), pp.16-30. choi, seung-whan. (2010). ―fighting terrorism through the rule of law?‖ journal of conflict resolution 54(6), pp.940-966. choi, seung-whan& james a. piazza. (2016). ―ethnic groups, political exclusion and domestic terrorism,” defence and peace economics, 8(3), pp.347-377. deluca, tom. (1995). the two faces of political apathy. philadelphia: temple university press. crenshaw, martha. (1981). ―the causes of terrorism.‖ comparative politics 13(4), pp.379-399. ergil, dogu. (2000). ―the kurdish question in turkey.‖ journal of democracy 11(3), pp.122 135. eyerman, joe. (1998). ―terrorism and democratic states.‖ international interactions 24(2), pp.151-170. findley, michael g. and joseph k. young. (2011). ―terrorism, democracy, and credible commitments.‖ international studies quarterly 55(2), pp357-378. . (2012). ―terrorism and civil war: a spatial and temporal approach to a conceptual problem.‖ perspective on politics 10(2), pp.285-305. fox, jonathan. (1999). ―the influence of religious legitimacy on grievance formation by ethno religious minorities.‖ journal of peace research 36(3), pp.289-307. gleditsch, k.s. & polo, s.m.t. (?). ―ethnic inclusion, democracy, and terrorism.‖ https://core.ac.uk. accessed may 22, 2020. goodwin, jef. (2006). ―a theory of categorical terrorism.‖ social forces 84(4), pp.2027-2046. gurr, ted robert. (1994). peoples against state: ethno-political conflict and the changing world system.‖ international studies quarterly 38(3), pp.347-377. . (2000). people versus state. washington: united states institute of peace press. juergensmeyer, mark. (1993). the new cold war? berkeley: university of california press. kaufman, chaim. (1998). ―possible and impossible solutions to ethnic civil wars.‖ international security 20(4), pp.26-76. laqueur, walter. (1999). the new terrorism. oxford: oxford university press. li, quan. (2005). ―does democracy promote or reduce transnational terrorist incidents?‖ journal of conflict resolution 49(2), pp.278-297. nwabunka, j. (2006). the political economy of terrorism. ibadan: university press. nyerere, j.k. ujamaa: the basis of african socialism,‖ in ujamaa: essays on socialism. julius k. nyerere (ed.). (1968). dar es salaam: oxford university press, in j.k. nyerere (ed,) ujamaa: essays on socialism, (dar es salaam: oxford university press. https://core.ac.uk/ https://core.ac.uk/ 20 aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), piazza, james a. (2008). ―incubators of terror.‖ international studies quarterly 52(3), pp.159 488. . (2011). ―poverty, minority economic discrimination and domestic terrorism.‖ journal of peace research 48(3), pp.339-353. . (2012). ―types of minority discrimination and terrorism.‖ conflict management and peace science 29(5), pp.521-546. powell, g. bingham. (1982). contemporary democracies. cambridge: harvard university press. . (2000). ―the effects of religious discrimination on ethno-religious protest and rebellion.‖ journal of conflict studies 20(2), pp.1-26. rapoport, david c. (1991). ―some general observations on religion and violence.‖ terrorism and political violence 3(3), pp.127-134. regan, patrick m. and daniel norton. (2005). ―greed, grievance, and mobilization in civil wars.‖ journal of conflict resolution 49(3), pp.319-336. savun, burcu and brian j. philips. (2009). ―democracy, foreign policy, and terrorism.‖ journal of conflict resolution 53(6), pp.878-904. sayubhojwani, (2015). ―building inclusive cities.‖ https://www.citiesofmigration.ca/building inclusive-cities/political-inclusion/ seung-whan choi & james a. piazza, ―ethnic groups, political exclusion and domestic terrorism,” defence and peace economics, 2014. walsh, james i. and james a. piazza. (2010). ―why respecting physical intergrity rights reduces terrorism.‖ comparative political studies 43(4), pp.551-577. whitaker, david. (2001). the terrorism reader. new york: rutledge. http://www.citiesofmigration.ca/building-inclusive-cities/political-inclusion/ http://www.citiesofmigration.ca/building-inclusive-cities/political-inclusion/ a nation’s economy in the covid-19 pandemic era: what nigeria can learn from france clement chimaobi emefu abstract the covid-19 pandemic is revelatory of both positive and negative states of world economies. from a comparative analytical method of the sanitary measures put in place by various governments of the world, one can discern notable points of growth and decline (weakness) which could be lessons for world leaders. this paper argues that france as a european francophone economy could be a relevant example for nigeria. as an african anglophone economy which has always positioned itself as one of the economic powers in the continent, nigeria should brace up for the economic challenges of the post-covid era. the paper seeks to x-ray some of the fundamental ingredients which can support it in that direction. any other economy that aspires to survive in the forthcoming post pandemic future can also benefit from such trajectory. keywords: covid-19, economy, pandemic, lockdown, post-covid era. 1. introduction one needs to be an economic expert to be able to give an economic analysis under the covid-19 1 pandemic era. with its phenomenal impact on the world since early 2020, pushing the radical and unanticipated transformation of lifestyles of a good majority of our citizens, a lot can be said. a global crisis that turned automobile companies into producers of respiratory machines (bender &colias, 2020; salvador, 2020); taxi drivers were turned into ambulance owners (alasdair & danish, 2020); cosmetic companies turned into producers of hand sanitizers (ng, 2020); and even, monasteries and religious communities converted into private and medium scale enterprises for the production of face masks (hoyeau, 2020). the list can continue. all these speak for several economic indicators which got revealed as consequential to the outbreak of the coronavirus which causes the covid-19 disease. it was officially declared as a pandemic by the world health organization on march 11, 2020. from an eye witness experience in france since the outbreak of the pandemic, there have been unanticipated colossal events which hit the economic sector, while leaving a remarkable amount of transformative effects. a question could be asked further: why use france as an example for nigeria? these are two distinctly different countries, one anglophone and the other francophone, with almost parallel approaches to politico economic realities. the choice can succinctly be justified on the fact that knowledge comes more when there are divergent views to one same reality. moreover, france and emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … nigeria enjoy a long history of economic interactions. nigeria figures as one of the largest consumers of champagne, which originates from france 2 . this is not just a multimillion dollar market, but also a solid machine which has the capacity to nourish the bilateral economic relations of the two countries. in addition, the recent years have seen a massive academic exchange programs between the two countries. nigerian graduates and post graduates flood the french research centres with direct extension either to the french labour market or using the french system as a window into the european labour market. as it were, both campus france and the french service de coopération et d'action culturelle (scac) attached to the french embassy in nigeria, have this bilateral economic objective as a guiding principle in the discharge of their diplomatic duties. in return, the friends of nigeria (fon), a network of nigerian professionals in france, as an example of a nigerian initiative, do not just promote responsively to that paradigm but also positions itself as a vehicle and promoter of such dual strategic projects. based on these observations, we intend to discern fundamental indicators of not just a healthy or progressive economy 3 , but also other ingredients on which economic paradigms can be hatched and constructed for the future, especially for nigeria. against this backdrop, we could seek to designate what can be denoted as the foundational abc (rudiments) of a willing economy, following the french model. for an economy to stand the test of time, it must not just be anchored on various fundamental elements which ensure its existence, but also be able to prove its progress on those grounds. it is from this dimension that it could be asserted unequivocally that true governance thrives under a healthy economy. our concern in this context is not going to be the health consequences and/or the fragile nature of the health sector as revealed massively by the covid-19 pandemic. we rather wish to extrapolate those dull areas which radically demonstrate the porous state of the health sector in nigeria. consequently, we will use them to raise a collective awareness about the urgency for which this matter should be the concern of every government. it could also serve as an ingredient for promoting a more vibrant economic system which could always stand the waves of time. 2. foundational abc of a willing economy and the french model france ranks as one of the world‘s economic powers. with an annual gross domestic product (gdp) per capita growth of about 1.3% in 2019 and 2020 (economic survey of oecd, 2019), it maintains a permanent seat in the un security council. france figures as well among both the g8 (g7) and the g20 nations 4 . the largely economically based designation of these few countries echoes much of their individual might along the lines of economic stability. given that a country‘s economic power plays a significant role in the politics that it promotes both on the national and international levels, the g8 (g7) and aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 the g20 nations are always projected as the first class citizens of the international community. france counts among these two groups for multiple reasons. according to the organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd) economic survey of 2016, france was the world‘s fifth economic power in 2016 (and seventh in 2019 just behind the uk and india). it will be recalled that the country has recorded an estimated rate of 1.7% of its gdp growth in 2018, supported by a robust chain of investments, solid consumption of goods and services, favourable external conditions and domestic reforms. these make for the basic ingredients on which a strong country‘s economic prospect is built. according to the updated imf forecasts from 14 th april 2020, due to the outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic, the gdp growth of france is expected to fall to -7.2% in 2020 and pick up to 4.5% in 2021, subject to the post-pandemic global recovery. all these notwithstanding, in many sectors, the french economy is among the strongest in the world. this is because france is among the leading industrial economies in the automotive, aerospace, and railways sectors, as well as in cosmetics, luxury goods, insurance, pharmaceuticals, telecoms, power generation, defence, agriculture and hospitality. france is also the world's leading tourist destination – at least in terms of numbers, though not in terms of tourist spending. french companies operate worldwide; they run some of the big red buses in london, as well as trains and bus services all over europe. they also run supermarkets on four continents, including over 200 hypermarkets in china. french companies produce some of the pharmaceutical, beauty and dairy products that people use in their daily lives worldwide. regarding its labour market, france has one of the highest levels of graduates, and the highest number of science graduates per 1000 workers of any european country. the economic progress and advancement attributed to france did not arise from the vacuum. there are series of historical and political decisions taken by past french leaders focused on building a strong economy. in the years following the second world war, the french economy developed massively from a largely agrarian state with over 40% of the population still living on the land, into a modern industrial economy with world-class corporations and business leaders. in the years 1945 1975, known as "les trenteglorieuses", the french economy grew by an average of 4.1% in terms of gdp per inhabitant, far faster than the usa or the uk, though slower than germany or japan. the french state which for most of this time was in the hands of conservatives played an active role through the establishment of a series of four year plans (contrats de plan), whereby the state set-up economic targets and economic priorities, but left it up to private enterprises to achieve or apply them. for example, the rapid development of the french motorway system was achieved (and is still being managed) by public investment offset by the sale of long-term concessions to private or semi-private companies to operate and emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … maintain them. between 1945 and 1986, political leaders from charles de gaulle (a conservative) to françois mitterrand (a socialist) embarked on policies of nationalization and state‘s intervention. for de gaulle, nationalization was seen as a tool of economic development, guaranteeing a stable environment for key sectors of the french economy, and also ensuring support from his opponents on the left. he went on to nationalize the car-maker renault in 1945, as a means to help it recover from the war and also to placate the communist opposition and the unions. for mitterrand, nationalization was ideological. during his first tenure of office as the president, he initiated a wide range of nationalization projects touching different sectors, including banking, insurance and pharmaceuticals. however, for his second tenure of office, he advocated the famous "ni ni" doctrine (the neithernor doctrine), proposing neither nationalization nor privatization. in actual fact, this was a way of admitting the failure of his previous policy. yet beyond the issue of nationalization or privatization, the french state has maintained an above-average ability to intervene in economic affairs. it remains a major shareholder in utilities such as électricité de france (edf) where it has a majority holding, and france telecom (orange), in which it has a 27% holding. as a result of its hands-on approach to economic management, france has been able to ensure some remarkable economic success stories. among the most visible of these is france's world-leading success in the field of rail infrastructure. france was the first country in the world to propose, plan and set up a dedicated high-speed rail network. today, the country can boast as the world's second most extensive high-speed rail network (after spain), one which runs without interruption from the north sea to the mediterranean, and east-west from near the german border to the lower reaches of the loire. state‘s intervention in the automotive sector has helped renault become one of the main world players in the sector, as the french government still holds a 15% stake in the car company which, in turn, is the leading investor (almost 45%) in nissan. this is however, a visible progressive outcome of the state‘s intervention policy in the french economic system, irrespective of what critics of such approach might hold to. in juxtaposition with the nigerian economic context, even though the two economies have a lot to share in reciprocity, the latter has much more it can learn from the former. according to the 2020 index of economic freedom of various countries, whereas france‘s economic freedom score is 66.0 making its economy the 64 th freest in 2020, nigeria‘s economic freedom score is 57.2, making its economy the 116 th freest in the 2020 index. its overall score has decreased by 0.1 point, reflecting a decline in the fiscal health score. nigeria is further ranked 14 th among 47 countries in the sub-saharan african region, and its overall score is slightly above the regional average but well below the world‘s average. this is contrasted by the french‘s economic overall score which is below the regional average but well above the world average. it is important therefore to note: as the measurement of a free economy also largely depends on its dividends on its aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 population, nigeria‘s economy still struggles to find its roots in a wide range of dimensions. as it were, its economy has been mostly not free since 2007, when it emerged from the repressed category. it can also be underlined that the gdp growth of nigeria over the past five years has been unimpressive for such a resource-rich developing country (2020 index of economic freedom, 2020). this is because, nigeria‘s economic freedom and development have been battered by chronic and severe political instability, interference in the economy by the central bank of nigeria and the federal government, as well as the consequences of pervasive corruption. an economy which is saddled by power shortages, insecurity, high inflation rates and tight credit conditions cannot perform miracles to becoming robust. of course, all these parameters, whose direct impact could be easily be assessed on the subject-citizens, demonstrate the health of the economy. such a panoramic profile of france as an economic power, in relation to nigeria‘s economic state, provides a tangible context for our reflection. the evaluation cycle can truly be completed when the dividends of the economic status quo are seen on the population. it could be qualified as dividends of economic success of the, either the french population (citizens) which counts about 64.7 million people, or the nigerian population which counts about 193.9 million people (2020 index of economic freedom, 2020). particularly in a challenging time such as the covid-19 era, a proactive economy understands the need and is able to support the masses through a solidarity mechanism such as the social security system with all its enabling impact. when such is the case, following the logical principle of reciprocity, the government could easily impose various rules of inevitable lockdown, which are judged as measures to cut down the spread of the coronavirus. 3. the social security system: a pointer to an economy at the service of citizens in france, the "social security" is a public service of the state, which insures all the social risks of workers, employees and liberal professions, self-employed and non-salaried workers, agricultural employees. the service is available on the metropolitan territory of france, and also for french employees posted abroad. by means of the social security code, the state has entrusted its management to various private law bodies which, as a result, are entrusted with a public service mission (dupeyroux&prétot, 2008; greber&kahil-wolff, 2006). put differently, call it "social security" it also alludes to one of the means of ensuring a mutual interaction between the government and the citizens. regardless of their actual liability to income tax, since they present the nature of taxable sums, the indemnities paid on the occasion of the termination of the employment contract at the initiative of the employer come within the scope of social security contributions (2nd civil chamber july 6, 2017). the unprecedented circumstance of the covid-19 crisis fits into one of these juridical conditions. emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … from the above juridical base, the benefits of the social security system could not be as salutary for millions of french citizens as it has been since the beginning of the covid 19 pandemic. ―even though the government‘s financial aid does not come in full and also as at when due because of a massive influx of people on the scheme, the little that comes has been our sole source of survival‖, says ghislaine lebrun, a french colleague. this is because, she continues, ―my husband and i lost our jobs at the beginning of the lockdown, and our various companies had to declare bankrupt, as they could no longer function as they used to‖. this is one out of millions of similar cases of precariousness of the economic health of many countries as a result of the covid-19 pandemic. when both medium and large scale enterprises can no longer work under strict sanitary regulations, a direct consequence is the dismissal of employees, at least to save the juridical personality of the entity. it was in the light of this that the french government, on the 11 th of march 2020, announced, alongside the lockdown rules, the sum of €450 billion as its preliminary budget to "save the economy" (plane, 2020). in this notable economic package, salaries that were paid by various companies to their workers were almost entirely taken charge of by the government. it is interesting to note comparatively with the nigerian approach, such welfare package was not to be distributed to the population home after home. there is already an existing mechanism through which the government can directly ―give and take‖ from its citizens. going by that, millions of french citizens, who were eligible for this direct assistance had their bank accounts credited in real time as the testimony of ghislaine above highlights. in addition to the traditional social security system which has been instituted in france since 1945, another massive social assistance initiative was taken by the government in march, and renewed in november 2020. to support the most modest households and young people under 25 years of age facing the financial difficulties linked to the pandemic crisis of covid-19, exceptional solidarity aid was agreed be paid to them from november 27, 2020. this aid of 150 € is increased in proportion to the number of children these people could have at their charge. service-public.fr went further to explain who can benefit from it and what the amounts were to be. this assistance is paid automatically to those who are entitled to it by way of family allowance funds, agricultural mutual funds or through the government agency of pôleemploi. this is because there is already an existing database with the above agency, which facilitates such interaction between the citizens and the government. it will be added to social assistance paid monthly throughout the year (french prime minister, 2020). correlatively, the nigerian government issued an economic package for citizens during the heat of the covid-19 pandemic, between the months of march and may 2020. the aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 intention behind such initiative is not far from the idea that propels the french social solidarity initiative, with similar examples in other developed economies like the us and the uk. millions of naira were allocated to what was tagged ―fg‘s covid-19 palliatives‖, as the minister of humanitarian affairs, disaster management and social development, hajiyasadiya umar farouq testified to at the beginning of the lockdown (agbedo et al., 2020). however good the intention could have been, was it possible to allocate an aid to a citizen that cannot be accounted for? is it possible to reach out to a citizen who does not even exist in the ―real consciousness‖ of the government: a citizen without identity, a citizen whose existence is not on any record except when he owns a driver‘s license or an international passport? a citizen who is already dead almost at the same time he is born, since there is no trace of his coming into the world as nigerian? was there to be a functional system similar to that of the french social security and the like, there would not have been any reason for the government of nigeria and its agencies to create stores of warehouses where food materials were kept. these were obviously awaiting distribution to the population home after the other, only and according to the whims of few privileged individuals favoured by the minster in-charge of the package. even though the covid-19 palliatives remained hidden beyond the very lockdown period they were needed till the #endsars nationwide protesters discovered and pounced on them (obiezu, 2020), it still echoes glaringly the poverty of the nigerian economy. if a government cannot efficiently render basic services to its population, how then can it expect obedience to its laws by the same citizens it cannot serve? 4. the management of lockdown rules during the covid-19 pandemic as an economic indicator of a strong or weak economy the merit of every rule lies on its capacity to guide its subjects towards attaining a set objective. it is on this interpretation that the rules put in place to implement the lockdown measures against the covid-19 pandemic both in france and in nigeria, as well as in other parts of the world have their primordial raison d’être. a healthy rule can be identified from its endpoint, which is simply its reception and compliance by the subjects for which it is meant. it must not be enforced by naked brutal force, but rather by means of a more respectful approach, which serves the purpose of awakening the sense of responsibility on the subjects of the law. observations made both in the french and nigerian contexts leave a lot of interrogations in this regard. beyond using the police and the military on the street to enforce the sanitary measures put in place against the covid-19 pandemic, a government like that of nigeria has no other effective means of maintaining the lockdown regulations. as a nigerian citizen, up until the last decade, there is no available database which contains the individual profile of the nigerian population, through which a direct impact of governance can reach the last emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … man on the street. apart from those who have driver‘s license or international passports or civil servants, or bank accounts and the like, it is almost impossible to account for individual nigerians. the project for enrolling every citizen into a national identity card scheme has been ongoing for the past five to ten years, and yet has not been completed. put differently, it will be very difficult to ascertain a comprehensive record of nigerian citizens, right from birth to death as could be observed in most countries accomplishing developmental strides today. consequently, even ―ghost workers‖ continue to receive salaries in various circles of public service. by contrast, it is almost impossible for there not to be an updated and actualized record of every french citizen in a database that the government uses in various active interactions with its population. it is through such a system that social services like taxes and medical insurance could be administered from beginning till the end. the french law enforcement agents therefore have no rights to abuse, let alone brutalize a law breaker as was the case severally in nigeria (bbc news, 2020). the french police, whose duty is to ensure that the lockdown rules were duly respected had just the mandate to attribute fines as from €135 to offenders. such a method, which consists of notifying the offender of his offence, while taking note of his particulars, can also be effective on the ground that there is a database which already contains the identity of the individual. in other words, with such established trace of the citizen, including name and address (known as the ―état civil‖), whatever penalty that is charged must surely be paid someday. the risk of not paying the initial fine of €135 does not worth it, as it will not only increase automatically at the expiration of the deadline originally stipulated, but will also at extreme cases, warrant the loss of possible benefits which could be gotten from the government. meanwhile, in the nigerian context, without a forceful arrest of the offender, there is no way for eventual penalties to be adhered to, since there is no centralized record of the offending-citizen anywhere. from the above, it comes to light that the administration of every economy is a dual responsibility. a progressive economy must be capable of having the ―give-and-take‖ principle of reciprocity. as it sounds logical that for nature to respect man, man must respect nature, so too, for the citizen to serve the government, the government must serve its citizen. no government could put up laws, expecting them to be respected without putting in place the basic elements which smoothly guarantee the observance of such laws. it is like giving an authoritative injunction that the streets must be kept clean, whereas there is no provision of dustbins in which wastes can be collected. such rule of engagement highlights the basic ingredients of an administrative process whereby true governance could produce a healthy economy (as in the case of france and nigeria for example). aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 5. true governance of a nation thrives under a healthy economy, and vice versa the symbiotic relationship between the act of governance and the economy of any nation is such that none can be functional without the other. this assertion could be represented as the kind of relationship which exists between a sim card and the mobile telephone itself: none can actualise an effective telephone communication alone. in other words, it is only the combination of both objects that can give rise to an effective communication amongst people, which constitutes their main objective of being assembled together. in a similar way, the act of governance and the notion of economy are two central realities whose essence depends on their coexistence. in 1992, the world bank had defined governance as the manner in which power is exercised over the management of economic and social resources for development (as cited in weiss, 2000). subsequently, this definition turned out to be somewhat narrow, as it did not take into account the role of the civil society and the importance of political institutions and civil liberties. aware of that lack, the oecd went on to highlight three essential characteristics of governance: the form of the political regime; the process by which authority is exercised in the management of the country's economic and social resources; and the capacity of the state to formulate and implement policies and to carry out its functions (as cited in dessart, ubogu, 2001). the foregoing brings us to the economic role of the state in any given political context. it would be very difficult to add anything to the rich intellectual legacy bequeathed to us by the great political economists — adam smith, john stuart mill, and so many others over the past two centuries. to avoid the risk of falling into an extreme simplification, one could consider that the economic role of the state has evolved according to objective and historical conditions. it can also be argued that it developed alongside the more subjective views that characterized the intellectual tradition in economics during this period. according to philosophers and those who wrote on political economy in the late 18th century and most of the 19th century, the economic role of the state was limited to compensating for externalities and possible distortions arising from the dysfunction of markets and the provision of public goods. subsequently, as societies became more complex and industrial economies engendered dislocations and disparities, countries began to invoke income distribution concerns, thus adding to their inevitable functions of taking charge of the poor, the sick and the disadvantaged populations. from this background then, there could be a feasible extrapolation of what has been experienced on concrete terms by most economies of the world today. for example, there is no social security system which can be put together with no economic consequences. simply put, the mere conception and attempt to administer the governmental apparatus is economically intensive. following the struggle to responding to the covid-19 pandemic since early 2020, the first major concern of most governments was how to save the economy. it was along this line that the french president, emmanuel macron, while emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … promulgating several lockdown rules, called attention to possible threats to the economy. considering the gravity of the situation, there was sufficient reason to look into the french foreign reserves and decide the amount to be dedicated to saving all forms of enterprises that stir the economy. all these, hallmark of an active economy, were considered to be under colossal threat resulting from the aftermath of the coronavirus crisis. as a result, a clear-cut support plan for both individual citizens and for the collective economy at large was put on the table of the french prime minister. as it were, any economy that aspires to a dynamic level cannot compromise the need to be always proactive. envisaging the future amidst its uncertainties as encapsulated in the covid-19 crisis assures a firmer control of the economic sector, a major point in the various announcements made by the french government. 6. government support for the economy in the era of covid-19 pandemic at the wake of the covid-19 pandemic, the second crisis alert given by the french government after that of the health sector was on the economy. this was demonstrated in the mobilization of the offices of the prime minister – head of government, the health and economic ministries, side by side. in real time, one could observe the collaboration of these governmental institutions with ministerial portfolios in various measures to respond to the threatening challenges. with sanitary measures put in place to cut down the spread of the virus, one could have expected the next attention to be given to the maintenance of law and order around the sanitary regulations by the military department. but it turned out to be that the sector of the economy became the most urgent preoccupation of the entire government: how to save the economy! from the facts on the ground, the consequences of the covid-19 crisis on the french, european and world economy are major. gdp growths and international trade have contracted, and almost all sectors of the economy have seen their activity decline, to a total shutdown in some cases. the french government has mobilized itself to propose several emergency measures to support the economy and businesses: partial unemployment, deferral of charges, contributions, and loans guaranteed by the state to the tune of €300 billion as solidarity fund for very small businesses, etc. very directly and for example, several measures have been implemented by the ministry for europe and foreign affairs in the economic sectors under its jurisdiction: tourism and export, which have been severely affected by the health crisis. the foreign affairs minister, jean-yves le drian and secretary of state, jean-baptiste lemoyne brought together regional presidents, parliamentarians, public and private export players and industry representatives on several occasions to discuss the challenges and impacts of the pandemic to foreign trade and french exports, and to prepare for the recovery. these aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 meetings enabled a regular update on the consequences of the pandemic for exporting companies, in particular, for small and medium-sized enterprises (smes); to draw an initial assessment of the actions taken; and to make proposals for the coming months (french foreign affairs ministry, 2020). from this perspective and on the continental level, france with a proactive project of law on the floor of the european union, was the first european country to encourage the union to put a collective measure against the crisis. on march 10, 2020, it requested an extraordinary european council meeting and called for coordinated border measures to prevent countries from adopting an individualist approach. it should be recalled that the crisis is happening in the context of the brexit fever, which doubles the continental challenge for the european countries. therefore, the seriousness and urgency of the communal initiative pushed the french president to take this concern himself to the eu parliament, in search of support for a collective eu response to the impending economic crisis. seemingly in his thoughts, a global pandemic such as covid-19 could not attract any commensurate response less than global and continental. following from the above initiative, the heads of state and government of europe came together to take several measures to coordinate the public health efforts, aimed at protecting europeans and to reduce the socioeconomic impact of the crisis. with such alert given on the imminent threat on the economy, the expressed concern was how to rescue collapsing businesses and save jobs which were risking high losses (french ministry of europe and foreign affairs, 2020). on the part of the nigerian government, we had seen a somewhat pessimistic approach put in place in response to any economic crisis occasioned by the covid-19 pandemic. apart from the ncdc 5 – a sub-agency under the ministry of health – which has been issuing out basic information concerning the coronavirus pandemic, it seems that the federal government of nigeria is not worried about the state of the economy. as it were, there has been no visible plan for a rescue operation for the economy, both on the national level and even on the continental level. such an observation leaves many interrogations on the table regarding how much control such a government has on its internal economic affairs, especially in the post-covid nearest future. 7. control of governance: saving the economy in the post-covid future sequel to the above exposé on the proactive measures put in place by many governments around the world like france, one can quickly identify any government which has a firm grip of the affairs of governance. the notion of control does not allude to seizure for any kind of exploitation, but rather in the sense of mastery of the rudiments of public administration. it will therefore be impossible to make projections on the present or future state of any economy whereby there is no hold of it. what is certain is that the economic emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … crisis which is already being caused by the covid-19 pandemic is the most serious since the end of the second world war. the longer it is going to last, the more consistent the responsive measures from various states should have to be, especially as the crisis unleashes deeper scars on the economic fabric (charrel, 2020). what should be understood is that a deficient management of the health crisis relating to the covid-19 pandemic leaves much to say of any government‘s ability to come to the rescue of its troubling economy. this is so because the economic crisis is a reality in the context of the current sanitary situation both for france and nigeria. the fundamental question that begs for an answer is: are there sufficient chances to save what is left of the economy? right from the start, there were already conflicting information as regards the nature of the coronavirus. this difficult circumstance which leveled on all governments of the world most probably caused much harm to the economy, indirectly. the role of the who could not salvage the situation, as countries like the us even demonstrated their anger against the international health organization. it was obvious that the number of lives that were lost would invariably impact adversely on the economic force. there were several indemnities which needed to be paid for by insurance companies and government agencies, or even the loss of human resources, which constituted a big loss for the labour market. an average nigerian may be of the same opinion that the nigerian economic system, which has no much link to the human forces of its population is excluded from such projection. as a matter of fact, there may not be much fear about the loss of human forces for the labour market since the coronavirus has only claimed 1,254 lives (out of a population of about 193 million people) since its outbreak earlier in 2020. this number of deaths is out of 84,414 confirmed cases, out of which 71,034 had been discharged (ncdc: 2020). be that as it may, with the fact of the global nature of the world‘s economy today, everything is connected. this is to the extent that whatever economic crisis that is happening in the global market today will certainly have levels of repercussions on any national economy, even of a very ―remote‖ country. therefore, the concern weighs on every economy of the world arising from the havoc which the pandemic in question wrecks all over. that makes it a universal problematic, which leaves no exception. for governments to make optimistic projections on how to salvage their respective economies remain a necessary preoccupation of the moment. 8. beyond management of the covid-19 pandemic to basics for an economic reconstruction from these considerations, it will certainly not be sufficient to raise alarm of the tragic impact of the covid-19 pandemic on the economy of every nation around the world especially nigeria. an initiative which will equally be more enriching will involve aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 concrete steps which would assist in a rescue mission for the economy of the future. it is along this line that we tried to use the case-study of france as a comparative example for an important geopolitical economy like that of nigeria. this can invariably be applied or extended to any other country in the journey of development. we could further accentuate a number of concrete indices which could demand a constant attention from those responsible for piloting the economic affairs. from the foregoing, it would not be enough to have simply on record that nigeria‘s population is 193.9 million people according to the current statistics of the 2020 index of economic freedom. we may not also dwell on fundamental interrogation of how such figure was derived and its eventual exactitude at the moment. the more essential point to be made hinges on how much the government possesses a comprehensive data, which contains the accurate particulars of every citizen from birth to death. this should be the beginning of determining the economic capacity and be able to project the nigerian working force, as well as the force that could be transformed into the economic market. as highlighted from the french paradigm, any form of social solidarity, which can be institutionalized is one of the ways to enshrine a mutual collaboration between the public and private sectors of governance. put differently, the established governmental structure cannot do it alone. there is always a need for the support of the private sector. with a symbiotic relationship established through various means of social solidarity, a collective effort becomes a strong source for facing any foreseen and unforeseen economic and/or socio-political crisis that could ever arise. if the nigerian economy desires to stand up today and in the forthcoming post-covid-19 era, the government must think out of the traditional box. gone are the days of ―manual economic policies‖. the covid-19 pandemic is ushering a new world order, in the sense of divergent transformation in every day to day style of living which our society had still known as at january 2020. this includes the rapport between and among people, down to the digitalization of goods and services, integration with the various forms of artificial intelligence into both professional and private life. these new modes of living, which the pandemic has gradually imposed on every man and woman today, directly or indirectly affect the core of the human economy under the care of every government of the world. to be able, therefore, to respond and match with the new trend, no existing economic society can continue to remain archaic. if nigeria is still battling today, in 2020, with the problem of electricity supply to the nooks and crannies of the country, that singular example speaks volumes of the gigantic work which still needs to be done so as to secure and establish a conducive environment for the young population on whose hand depends the future success of the economy. in all, it is better late than never. emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … 9. conclusion to conclude, the traces of failure in the response to the economic crisis being caused by the covid-19 pandemic on the part of the nigerian government speak louder of a more systemic problem. the ―manual‖ management of the nigeria‘s fg palliatives demonstrates an economic system which is either struggling to stand or is weak. it further shows a non-existent ―give-and-take‖ relationship between the government and its citizens. such a problematic therefore calls for an urgent attention as the world anticipates a post covid-19 pandemic era, which definitely will come with new challenges especially for the global economy. it is in this guise that this paper seeks for a model to run a dynamic economic system in the post covid-19 pandemic era. with some of the elements highlighted above, the french response in the heat of the health crisis has much to contribute to the nigerian economic project. this is because, it shows an economic model which could stand the shock of unforeseen risks like the coronavirus crisis. the social solidarity system reveals a concrete product of such a dynamic economy. it is simply a pointer towards a firmer construction of an economic system which can better respond to the impending challenges which the post covid-19 era is going to unleash. it is important to reiterate that the french economic model was born out of historical antecedents and a political will. any project therefore to construct a dynamic and robust economic system might better integrate such a tested, proven and efficient model. this paper seeks to conclude by proposing the french economic model to the nigerian government and to other developing economies in the african continent and beyond. a proactive approach is always invaluably salutary. though the covid-19 pandemic has been overwhelming the entire world and even destructive of so many institutional structures that have served so many economies since the last global pandemic of the spanish flu of 1918, it equally ushers in a good number of economic dynamics. unarguably, it occasions an opportunity for paradigmatic revolutions in all sectors of life. it is only the nation that is able to read the signs of time now that will be able to thrive better in the event of the monumental transformation that is very imminent. finally, while it takes france sometime to arrive at this level of economic development as noted above, the factor of leadership has always been very crucial to this growth. like chinua achebe put it succinctly that ―trouble with nigeria is the failure of leadership‖ (achebe, 1983), this same factor of leadership still demands a more urgent consideration today in view of the development of nigeria. aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 notes 1 covid-19 is the disease caused by a new coronavirus called sars-cov-2. it was first discovered in wuhan, people's republic of china (cf. world health organisation. what is covid-19? world health organisation [online].retrieved november 20, 2020 from https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novelcoronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7b i8qp6hwjt51-6pv-. 2 if nigeria is not among the biggest consumers of champagne in the world, she ranks as the africa‘s top champagne importer. looking at imports, nigeria was the 23rd largest champagne importer in the world in 2014. the uk and us have maintained their top two positions for the past several years, said batonnet, a researcher at the comité champagne, a trade association that represents growers and producers in france. ―[nigeria] has never appeared in the top 10. but nigeria has been, for some years now, the [top] importer of champagne in africa.‖ demian, m. (2020). no, nigeria is not the world‘s biggest champagne consumer after france. africa check. retrieved november 22, 2020, from https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds biggestchampagne-consumer-after-france/. 3 this paper employs the term ―economy‖ in two forms: first, ―economy‖ as a country with all its governmental apparatus. second, ―economy‖ as a large set of inter related production, consumption, and exchange activities that aid in determining how scarce resources are allocated. in other words, economy as the management of goods and commodities in a given society. this article employs as at when necessary this notion in this double variation. 4 the group of eight (g8) refers to the group of eight highly industrialized nations—france, germany, italy, the united kingdom, japan, the united states, canada, and russia—that hold an annual meeting to foster consensus on global issues like economic growth and crisis management, global security, energy, and terrorism. the forum enables presidents and prime ministers, as well as their finance and foreign ministers, to candidly discuss pressing international issues. it should be noted that the aggregate gdp of g8 states makes up some 50 percent of the global economy. this explains why this comity of nations wedges a lot of economic influence on the rest of the world. russia formally joined the group in 1998, after steps toward democratization and years of gradual engagement with what was then the g7. however, moscow faced renewed criticism in march 2014 on the heels of its invasion of neighbouring ukraine‘s crimea region, the home of russia‘s black sea fleet and many ethnic russians, amid political transition in the capital of kiev. the seven other members of the g8, joined by the presidents of the european council and european commission, released a joint https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/ https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirusdrnjjdihbwxs0umhpzy7bi8qp6hwjt51-6pvhttps://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ https://africacheck.org/reports/no-nigeria-is-not-the-worlds-biggest-champagne-consumer-after-france/ emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … statement as the g7 condemning "the russian federation‘s clear violation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of ukraine." russia‘s actions "contravene the principles and values on which the g7 and the g8 operate," they said, announcing a suspension of preparatory talks for the sochi summit (cited in laub, z. (2014). the group of eight (g8) industrialized nations. council on foreign relations [online]. retrieved november 30, 2020, from https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eightg8 industrialized-nations. 5 the nigeria centre for disease control (ncdc) was established in the year 2011 in response to the challenges of public health emergencies and to enhance nigeria‘s preparedness and response to epidemics through prevention, detection and control of communicable diseases (retrieved december 7, 2020, from https://ncdc.gov.ng/). https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/group-eight-g8-industrialized-nations https://ncdc.gov.ng/ https://ncdc.gov.ng/ aquino journal of philosophy, vol. 1(1), 2021 references achebe, c., (1983), the trouble with nigeria. london: heinemann educational books ltd., 1983. agbedo, o., anazia, d., awodipe, t., thomas-odia, i., diamond, m., adeowo, a. &ezeilo, o. (2020, august 8). fg‘s covid-19 palliatives: why nigerians are not feeling the impact. the guardian saturday magazine (online). retrieved december 7, 2020, from https://guardian.ng/saturdaymagazine/fgs-covid-19 palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/. alasdair, p. & danish, s. (2020, june 15). taxi driver turns hearse driver as coronavirus cases in india spike. reuters. retrieved november 11, 2020, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-healthcoronavirus-india-ambulance-fe iduskbn23m0v5. bender, m. c. &colias, m. (2020, march 27). trump orders general motors to make ventilators. the wall street journal. retrieved november 11, 2020, from https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-outat-general-motors-over-ventilators 11585327749. british broadcasting corporation (2020, april 16). coronavirus: security forces kill more nigerians than covid-19. bbc news (online). retrieved december 8, 2020, from https://www.bbc.com/news/worldafrica-52317196. charrel, m. (2020, november 9). comment la pandémie de covid-19 vadurablementpeser sur l‘économie. le monde (online). retrieved december 8, 2020, from https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la pandemie-vadurablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html. dessart, m., &ubogu, r., (ed.), (2001, october). l‘évolution du rôle de l‘etat, la gouvernance et les nouveaux besoinsencapacités. imf elibrary. retrieved december 5, 2020, from https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/imf072/010381589060722/010357815890607 22/c07.xml?language =en&redirect=true#relateddocswidget. dupeyroux, j-j. &prétot, x. (2008). droit de la sécuritésociale, paris. dalloz publisher, 12 th edition. foreign affairs ministry (2020, april 20). covid-19 : les mesures économiques et l‘action du ministèreensoutien aux secteurs de l‘export et du tourisme. retrieved december 6, 2020, from https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in the-face-of-covid-19. french ministry of europe and foreign affairs (2020, april 20). european solidarity in the face of covid-19. delegfrance (online). retrieved december 10, 2020, from https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19. french prime minister (2020, november 30). une aide exceptionnelle de solidarité pour les foyers les plus modestes et les jeunes. service-publique (online). retrieved december 5, 2020, from https://www.service public.fr/particuliers/actualites/a14438. https://guardian.ng/saturday https://guardian.ng/saturday https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://guardian.ng/saturday-magazine/fgs-covid-19-palliatives-why-nigerians-are-not-feeling-the-impact/ https://www.reuters.com/article/us https://www.reuters.com/article/us https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-india-ambulance-fe-iduskbn23m0v5 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-india-ambulance-fe-iduskbn23m0v5 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-india-ambulance-fe-iduskbn23m0v5 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-india-ambulance-fe-iduskbn23m0v5 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-india-ambulance-fe-iduskbn23m0v5 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-india-ambulance-fe-iduskbn23m0v5 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-india-ambulance-fe-iduskbn23m0v5 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-india-ambulance-fe-iduskbn23m0v5 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-lashes-out-at-general-motors-over-ventilators-11585327749 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52317196 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52317196 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52317196 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52317196 https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/11/09/covid-19-comm8ent-la-pandemie-va-durablement-peser-sur-l-economie_6059025_3234.html https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/imf072/010381589060722/01035781589060722/c07.xml?language%20 https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/imf072/010381589060722/01035781589060722/c07.xml?language%20 https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/imf072/010381589060722/01035781589060722/c07.xml?language%20 https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/imf072/010381589060722/01035781589060722/c07.xml?language=en&redirect=true&relateddocswidget https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://onu.delegfrance.org/european-solidarity-in-the-face-of-covid-19 https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/actualites/a14438 https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/actualites/a14438 https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/actualites/a14438 https://www.service-public.fr/particuliers/actualites/a14438 emefu a nation’s economy in covid-19 pandemic … greber, p. &kahil-wolff, b. (2006). sécuritésociale aspects de droit national, international et européen. paris, lgdj publisher, volume 14. hoyeau, c. (2020, march 31). solidaires des malades du coronavirus, des religieuses fabriquent des masques sanitaires. la croix (online). retrieved november 11, 2020, from https://www.lacroix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquentmasques-sanitaires-2020-0331 1201086997. ng. (2020, march 30). coronavirus. l‘entreprise de cosmétiques « l‘occitane » se reconvertit dans la production de gel hydroalcoolique. ouest france (online). retrieved november 11, 2020, from https://www.ouest france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l occitanese-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509. obiezu, t. (2020, october 27). nigerians justify massive looting of covid19 supplies. voa news (online). retrieved december 10, 2020, from https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigeriansjustify-massive-looting covid-19-supplies. plane, m. (2020, may 27). la france, championne du monde de l'effort budgétaire face. france24 (online). retrieved december 7, 2020, from http://www.france24.com. salvador, r. (2020, march 20). gm to lend its auto factories to support production of ventilators in coronavirus fight. cnbc (online). retrieved november 11, 2020, from https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support production-of-ventilatorsin-coronavirus-fight.html#close. weiss, t. (2000). governance, good governance and global governance: conceptual and actual challenges. third world quarterly, 21(5), 795814.retrieved december 30, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3993619. 2 nd civil chamber (2017, july 6), appeal n ° 16-19607, bicc n ° 874 of january 15, 2018, retrieved november 11, 2020, from http://www.legifrance. 2020 index of economic freedom (2020, november). retrieved december 26, 2020, from https://www.heritage.org/index/. https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.la-croix.com/religion/catholicisme/france/solidaires-malades-coronavirus-religieuses-fabriquent-masques-sanitaires-2020-03-31-1201086997 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.ouest-france.fr/sante/virus/coronavirus/coronavirus-l-entreprise-de-cosmetiques-l-occitane-se-reconvertit-dans-la-production-de-gel-6795509 https://www.voanews.com/covid https://www.voanews.com/covid https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massive-looting-covid-19-supplies https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massive-looting-covid-19-supplies https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massive-looting-covid-19-supplies https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massive-looting-covid-19-supplies https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massive-looting-covid-19-supplies https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massive-looting-covid-19-supplies https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massive-looting-covid-19-supplies https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massive-looting-covid-19-supplies https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/nigerians-justify-massive-looting-covid-19-supplies http://www.france24.com/ http://www.france24.com/ https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/gm-to-lend-its-auto-factories-to-support-production-of-ventilators-in-coronavirus-fight.html#close http://www.jstor.org/stable/3993619 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3993619 https://www.heritage.org/index/ https://www.heritage.org/index/ aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 55 abstract this paper explores a threefold normative ethical approach to professional ethics. the prevalent moral failure among different professionals exposes the inadequacy of professional codes of conduct in arresting unethical behaviours among professionals. it is obvious that a professional code of conduct is necessary, but not sufficient without the moral growth, conviction and character of the professional. it was discovered that no particular normative ethical theory has the answer to the complex requirements of applied (professional) ethics. unarguably, there is no single ethical approach that can claim to offer answers to all the challenges and questions arising in professional practice or to be exempted from objections and criticisms. the paper argues that an amalgamation of utilitarian ethical theory, kantian duty ethics and aristotelian virtue ethics provides the ethical framework for engendering viable professional ethics if the prescriptions and underlying assumptions of these normative ethical theories are followed by professionals. the prescriptions can be grouped into three main tenets: consequences, duties and virtues. it concludes that there are three key elements that a professional should observe to operate within acceptable ethical parameters, which are the greatest good, respect for human persons and moral virtues. keywords: normative ethics, consequences, duties, virtues, professional ethics, professionals. introduction interest in ethics, most especially within the professions, has grown considerably in recent decades because it has been found that good ethics is a crucial requirement of any profession. there exists much diversity of thought and little agreement regarding the most fundamental approaches to professional ethics. in the field of professional ethics, elucidations and applications of ethical theory before now have tended to focus on deontology and utilitarianism (bowie 130-163; hinman 176; sumner 147-156; clark 73; freeman 72). due to the discovery that neither deontology nor utilitarianism on its own is sufficient as an account of professional ethics, nor are they sufficient when they are taken together. in recent years, however, many scholars in this field have become dissatisfied with this simple bifurcation of ethics. for these reasons, some scholars have revived an interest in aristotelian virtue ethics (gardiner 291-316; oakley and cocking 74-94; blackburn and mcghee 90-122; solomon 317-339); still, others have explicated ethics of care and personal relationships (noddlings 128-130; hugman 67-84). consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ethical approach to professional ethics. odumayak okpo, ph.d department of philosophy university of uyo, uyo, nigeria in as much as ethics is both personal and professional, and cannot be separated, this also suggests that ethics cannot be divorced from practice. at the same time, just as the application of knowledge and skill is situational, so too is ethics. there is no doubt that a great number of professionals face ethical problems in their professional life, as compared to non-professionals, mainly because professionals are trained to provide services to society that cannot be provided by non-professionals. this is a result of the two main features that characterize professionals: “firstly, special knowledge and training and secondly, that other people are rendered especially vulnerable or dependent in their relationship to the practice of the professional” (fullinwider 73). consequently, professional associations introduce codes of conduct to increase professional and ethical consciousness among professionals and their sense of ethical responsibility. but, the rampant moral failure among different professionals exposes the inadequacy of professional codes of conduct without strong personal professional ethics of the professional. however, no particular normative ethical theory has the answer to the complex requirements of applied (professional) ethics. unarguably, there is no single ethical approach that can claim to offer answers to all the challenges and questions arising in professional practice or to be exempted from limitations, objections and criticisms. to this end, this present paper is an attempt to explore a threefold normative ethical approach to professional ethics. a threefold normative ethical approach offers new insights into the roles and responsibilities of professionals. clarification of terms: ethics, normative ethics, profession, professional, and professional ethics ethics as a major branch of philosophy concerns itself with the morality of human conduct. it is concerned with studying what is good, right or praiseworthy within human interaction(s). human conduct and actions form the core and subject matter of ethics or moral philosophy; the study of ethics starts with the study of human deeds and behaviour (okpo 9). ethics deals with the way things ought to be, the way human beings ought to behave and what humans ought to do. it helps people to decide what is right, praiseworthy and good or wrong, blameworthy and bad in any given situation. in other words, ethics is the study of standards for determining what behaviour or conduct is right and wrong, praiseworthy and blameworthy or good and bad. it is important to note that it is not only ethics that is concerned with human behaviour and actions in society. ethics is not the only discipline concerned with human behaviour and actions. social sciences like sociology, psychology and anthropology, are also interested in human actions and conduct. their interest and perspective of ethics is different from that of philosophical ethics. these social sciences tell us how human beings act and why human beings act as they do in society without actually making a value judgement. philosophical ethics, on the other hand, is interested not in the description and explanation but in the evaluation of human conduct (randall and buchler 257). this suggests that philosophical ethics is both evaluative and prescriptive in nature. philosophical ethics prescribes whether an action is right or wrong, and whether certain 56 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june conduct is justifiable or not. it deals with the way things ought to be, the way human beings ought to behave and what human beings ought to do. its major interests include the nature of ultimate value and the standards by which human actions and conduct can be judged right or wrong. hence, the study of ethics begins with the study of human action. without an anchor in human action, ethics loses its meaning and its value to decisionmakers. concerning professionals, okpo avers that “ethics is about who professionals are – their strength of character and what they do, their deeds and conduct” (10). normative ethics as a branch of ethics is concerned with norms, standards or principles by which human actions are to be good or bad, praiseworthy or blameworthy, and right or wrong. the word 'normative' denotes norms, or standards, of judgement. it studies principles about how human beings ought to live and seeks norms about what is right or wrong, virtuous, or just. it asks questions like: what principle ought we to live by? what are the basic principles of right and wrong actions? what are our fundamental moral duties? what makes the right actions right? which character traits count as virtues or vices and why? the three traditional normative ethical theories include consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics. these normative ethical theories shall be discussed in the subsequent section. a profession, according to umerah citing connelly and clandinin, is characterized by thirteen characteristics: i. a high level of education and training based on a unique and specialized body of knowledge; ii. requires activities that are predominantly intellectual with members possessing specialized exoteric knowledge; iii. a strong ideal of public service with an enforced professional code of conduct and high levels of respect from the public at large; iv. registration and regulation by the professional body; v. trusted to act in the client's best interest within a framework of accountability; vi. have ethical principles; vii. an autonomous association; viii. members should show high priority to service as opposed to personal gain; ix. should demand continuous in-service growth and provide members opportunities for that; x. a supportive working environment; xi. similar levels of compensation as to other professions; xii. it should be an occupation that affords its practitioners permanent membership in a life career; xiii. the spirit of service to god and humanity (42 – 43). it is clear from the above characteristics of a profession that teaching, medicine, banking, accounting, nursing, pharmacy, engineering, and law are considered professions among many others. 57 okpo consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ... the term 'professional', according to olu-owolabi, has “three important defining features: (i) expertise, as a result of long years of training (ii) dependency of the rest of the society on this group of people (iii) the moral obligations that the professionals owe to the rest of the society by protecting the interests and rights of their clients” (68). this suggests that a professional is an expert in a field of human endeavour that most clients know little about. so, clients and the public at large rely on the knowledge, expertise, and honesty of the professional. there is a correlation between a professional's moral responsibility and his/her professional calling. the moral responsibility associated with a professional calling makes professions differ from mere jobs. professionals are expected to commit themselves forever toward serving the interest of their clients and public interest a goal beyond their self-interest. many of the ethical issues, problems and dilemmas that arise in the world of profession emanate from this expectation. hence, the moral responsibility associated with a professional calling is the main component of a profession and the essential foundation for professional ethics. professional ethics belongs to the area of philosophical ethics known as applied ethics. professional ethics, according to olu-owolabi, refers to “the norms and duties that ought to moderate professional activities in such a way that the conduct of professionals is carried out not for personal gains, but in the overall interest of a community in particular and humanity in general” (67). this implies that professional ethics is concerned with the ethical principles of various professions and how these principles affect the behaviours of professionals and their relationship with the general public. professional ethics is a set of moral standards that depict the professional conduct that is expected in all fields of human endeavour. it explores the obligations of individuals within the perspective of their professional lives. one principal concern is with the kinds of obligations and responsibilities that professionals (journalists, teachers, physicians, engineers, ministers, public administrators, accountants and managers, to mention but few) have to their various stakeholders: clients, employers, employees, professional colleagues, other professionals and the society. professional ethics is also interested in the moral conduct and guidelines regulating the profession and its members. this area of ethical study examines moral issues, problems, conflicts of interest, and social responsibility of the individual professionals as well as the profession itself in the light of moral principles, including duty and obligation. it is important to note that an ethical issue or dilemma is simply a situation or problem that needs an individual or organization to choose between alternatives that must be appraised as right or wrong, moral or immoral, and ethical or unethical. moreover, professional ethics do not only provide standards that regulate the relationships between professionals and clients, but they also define norms regulating the professional's responsibility to colleagues and the public in general. it also raises central questions that contain ethical issues, problems and dilemmas that arise in the world of profession. let us at this juncture examine the three major normative ethical theories that provide norms, standards and principles that regulate human conduct. 58 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june normative ethical theories: consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics as mentioned in the preceding section, professional ethics belongs to the area of philosophical ethics known as applied ethics. in applied ethics, moral philosophers have to make use of the insights derived from meta-ethics and normative ethics in addressing specific ethical issues and cases. consequently, applied ethics is the application of ethical theories and principles to particular moral dilemmas, issues or cases. the purpose of a normative ethical theory is to be action-guiding, and the actions of a professional cannot be rationally guided by the information he/she does not have and cannot be expected to have. in philosophical ethics, three major normative ethical theories attempt to set rules that regulate human conduct in society. these theories focus on a set of standards and principles or a set of moral character traits that human beings are expected to possess. these normative ethical theories include consequentialism, deontological and virtue ethics. the goal of this section is to examine these three normative ethical theories and an attempt will be made to identify the nature, strengths and weaknesses of each of these theories. consequentialism the term 'consequentialism' is used to classify a common way of moral reasoning about right and wrong actions of a particular set of related ethical theories. the consequentialism normative ethical theory is also referred to as 'teleological theory'. what then is consequentialism or teleological theory? consequentialist normative ethical theories maintain that it is the results or consequences of actions that determine the rightness or wrongness of such actions. in other words, a moral agent action is right or wrong because, and only because, of the action's results or consequences. here, the concern is about morally right or wrong conduct. consequentialists, unlike deontologists, do not ask whether a particular practice is right or wrong but whether it will lead to positive results. what matter to the consequentialists is nothing but the result or consequence of our action. consequentialism, according to ferrell, fraedrich and ferrell, “refers to moral philosophies in which an act is considered morally right or acceptable if it produces some desired result such as pleasure, knowledge, career growth, the realization of self-interest, utility, wealth, or even fame” (155). similarly, rossouw clearly explains the nature of the consequentialism theory thus: consequence-oriented theories emphasize that we should look at the possible consequences or practical implications of our intended actions to determine whether an action is right or wrong. if the bad consequences outweigh the good ones, the proposed action should be abandoned and it should be regarded as morally wrong. should the good consequence outweigh the bad ones, however, the proposed action can be considered morally permissible (15-16). this entails that it is the goodness or badness of an action's consequences that determine its rightness or wrongness. for the consequentialists, the moral worth of conduct is determined by its consequences. put differently, an action is morally right if, and only if, 59 okpo consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ... among the actions that the moral agent could perform, there is no other action, the outcome of which has a greater expected value. to act in any other way is wrong. it should be noted that different consequentialist normative ethical theories associate the rightness or wrongness of actions with the goodness or badness of their results in different ways. many normative ethical theories belong to this ethical theory family in philosophical ethics. for this paper, we shall discuss one major version of consequentialism: utilitarianism. utilitarianism as an ethical theory is traceable to jeremy bentham (1748 – 1832) and john stuart mill (1806 – 1873). these two nineteenth-century british philosophers are credited with introducing utilitarianism into the mainstream of modern western ethical thought. their normative ethical theories are based on the principle of utility, the principle of the greatest good, or the principle of the greatest happiness. according to utilitarianism, utility is the moral standard; it is the parameter or yardstick by which good actions are distinguished from bad actions. by utility, the utilitarian means benefit, advantage, pleasure, good or happiness (bentham 18; omoregbe 233). mill, in his book – on liberty and utilitarianism, defines utilitarianism as: the creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, utility or the greatest happiness principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. by happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure (118). this means that those actions which produce or tend to produce pleasure are good while those that produce or tend to produce pain are bad. it is obvious that utilitarianism is concerned with consequences, but the utilitarian pursues the greatest good for the greatest number of persons that would be affected by a decision. it is important to note that when the utilitarian principle asserts that the right action is the one that produces more utility than any other possible action, it does not mean that the right action is the one that produces the most utility for the moral agent. rather, an action is right if it produces the most utility for every person affected by the action, including the moral agent (velasquez 85). hence, utilitarianism is not egoism (ethical egoism is also a consequentialism ethical theory that holds that the moral agent ought to do what is in his/her self-interest). the purpose of ethics for the utilitarian is to promote human welfare by minimizing harm and maximizing the good for the greatest number of people. there are two positions of utilitarianism: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. actutilitarianism maintains that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined only based on the consequences of the action. according to this position, individual actions are to be judged right or wrong if their consequences tend to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. thus actutilitarianism only considers the consequence of an action and not the nature of the act itself. 60 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june rule-utilitarianism, on the other hand, maintains that an action is right if it is in agreement with a rule of conduct that has been validated by the principle of utility, and wrong, if otherwise. rule-utilitarianism claims that it is never reasonable in any circumstances to violate a rule and the general observance of which produces the greatest possible good to the greatest number of people. hence, while act-utilitarianism is preoccupied with specific actions, rule-utilitarianism is preoccupied with rules. however, all versions of utilitarianism have one thing in common: it is the consequence of an action that decides the rightness or wrongness of that action and not the nature of the act itself. rather than looking at the intention behind the act, one must explore the best outcome for the greatest number of people. at the level of business organization, the greatest possible good to all the stakeholders would be situated both in profit and inefficient business behaviour. however, it is when the consequence, such as profit maximization, becomes the only focus of business behaviour that a utilitarian approach may become difficult and harm the rights of others. in the same vein, when an action is taken by a professional to seek the good of the wider society or group, that professional is utilitarian. for instance, professional journalist or reporter who uses deception to uncover social ills often appeal to the principle of utility on the ground that, in the long run, they are accomplishing some moral good for the public they serve. in other words, the positive consequences for society justify the devious means of gathering information. the criterion of quality in the utilitarian framework poses so many difficulties, it can be argued that utilitarianism justifies – and perhaps even demands – acts which seem to us to be unjust or immoral. another way of expressing this objection to utilitarianism is to claim that people have rights which ought not to be violated even when doing so results in a greater total of good. utilitarianism is incapable of respecting such rights because they can always be overridden in favour of an act or rule which maximizes total good. it seems to be true that the consequences of action play a significant part in deciding whether that action is right or wrong. but utilitarianism's failure to take into account rights suggests that the rightness of an action does not depend solely upon its consequences – for us or others. other non-consequentialist factors may also have a bearing on the moral quality of actions. for an approach which does take such factors into account, we turn to the deontology normative ethical theories. deontology deontology is derived from the greek word deon meaning “duty”. deontology considers duty, or doing what is right for its own sake, as the basis of morality. deontology sees the rightness or wrongness of an action in terms of a duty or obligation to respect the right and values of people. this duty-based normative ethical theory asserts that the consequences of an action have nothing to do with whether the action is right or wrong; it is, thus, non61 okpo consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ... consequentialism. if consequentialism asks us to think through the consequences of the act, deontology or non-consequentialism asks us to think through the act, without thinking about its consequences. according to deontology or non-consequentialism, some types of actions are forbidden, or necessary, regardless of their consequences. deontology, according to ferrell, fraedrich and ferrell, is seen as a “moral philosophy that focuses on the rights of individuals and the intentions associated with a particular behaviour rather than on its consequences” (158). this denotes that deontological theories are based on the philosophy that judging an action of an individual as morally right or wrong should not depend on the consequences of the action but on the intentions of the moral agent. put differently, deontology as a normative ethical theory does not look chiefly at the consequences of actions, but examines a situation for the essential moral worth of the intention of act, or rightness or wrongness of the act. unlike consequentialism, deontologists or non-consequentialists argue that certain behaviours are fundamentally wrong, even if these behaviours bring about greater benefits to society. for instance, deontologists would consider it wrong to commit a serious injustice against an individual, no matter how much greater social utility might result from doing so because such an action would be violating the moral principle of respect for persons. hence, to decide whether a particular behaviour is morally right, deontologists look for consistency in moral principles, not consequences. one of the outstanding deontologists is immanuel kant who believes that respecting the individual and motive matters more than results or consequences in moral deliberations. immanuel kant (1724 – 1804) was the most famous deontologist in the history of moral philosophy. it should be noted that kantianism is identified with an idea put forward by kant to the effect that the only thing that is good in all circumstances is goodwill. unlike the utilitarians, kant maintains that one ought to perform right actions not because they will produce good results, but because it is our duty as moral agents to do so. his moral philosophy is based on three major notions: his notion of goodwill, his notion of duty and his notion of the categorical imperative. kant speaking about goodwill maintains that nothing is good in itself except goodwill. kant meant that goodwill is the only thing that is good without qualifications; other things regarded as good are not categorically good because their goodness can be bad when misused. what then is goodwill? he sees goodwill as the human ability to act according to the moral law or as a will that acts for the sake of duty. humans are expected to act in conformity with moral laws or principles regardless of personal interests or consequences. kant makes a distinction between two types of duties: “acting for the sake of duty” and “acting according to duty”. while he considers the former as having a moral worth, he considers the latter as having no moral worth. for him, acting for the sake of duty is the only way that one's action can be said to have moral worth. what does it mean to act for the sake of duty and according to duty? to act for the sake of duty, kant says, is “to act, not because one hopes to gain anything from the action, not because one just feels like doing it 62 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june or because one has a natural inclination to doing such things, but purely out of reverence for the moral law” (omoregbe 220). this implies that when one is said to act for the sake of duty, one is simply acting according to the dictate of the moral law. to act according to duty, on the other hand, kant asserts, is “to act out of prudent considerations for one's interest” (omoregbe 220). it should be noted that kant never classified such actions as bad, but that those actions have no moral worth, that is, they are not morally praiseworthy. for instance, imagine that you are walking along the road with your friend. you pass a beggar asking for help on the street. and your friend gave the beggar some money out of empathy. for kant, your friend's action has no moral worth because what is moving him to give money is empathy rather than duty. he is acting by duty, not for the sake of duty. in other words, your friend is not acting out of respect for the moral law. kant makes a distinction between hypothetical imperative and categorical imperative. a hypothetical imperative is a conditional imperative which requires an individual to do something which is a means to an end. on the other hand, a categorical imperative is an unconditional imperative. categorical imperative enjoins actions not as means to ends but as good in themselves. hence, moral commands are categorical imperatives; they are unconditional. the categorical imperative of kant has two formulations. for kant, the criterion for distinguishing right from wrong actions is the principle of universalization. if one wants to know whether the action he intends to perform is morally right or wrong, he should look at the action's underlying principle (i.e., the maxim) and universalize it. in foundations of the metaphysics of morals, kant asserts that “i ought never to act in such a way that i could not also will that my maxim should be a universal law” (18). hence, one of kant's formulations of the categorical imperative is “act on the maxim which you can will to be a universal law.” this maxim could be interpreted to mean that before a professional performs a particular action, he/she should ask himself/herself whether he/she would consider it desirable for everyone in a similar situation as his/her to perform a similar action. if the answer is in the affirmative, then his action is morally right, otherwise, it is morally wrong. if a professional marketer is contemplating a deceptive marketing strategy to market or sell his/her product, for instance, he/she must be willing to endorse a world in which all people lie when it seems to their advantage to do so. if everyone were permitted to lie, one would never be able to tell if a person is lying or telling the truth. under such situations, the very practice of truth-telling is weakened and lying ceases to be profitable. kant postulates a second formulation of the categorical imperative that he claims is similar to the first version. in the second formulation, kant focuses his attention on the rights of human beings. kant opines that “act so that you treat humanity, whether in your person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only” (46). both egoism and utilitarianism (consequentialists) seem to violate this principle. for the egoist, others have value only insofar as they promote the egoist's self-interest; for the utilitarian, every person appears to be a means for the maximization of good. 63 okpo consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ... however, kant acknowledges that we might often use others as means to an end, as we do, for instance, when we employ them to do a job for us. but he underscores that they also have a value in and of themselves which we must respect. for this reason, a kantian would take strong exception to the view that employees are to be treated like mere tools in the production process. human labour should never be treated like machinery, industrial plants and capital solely by economic laws for profit maximization. any economic system that fails to acknowledge this distinction between human beings and other nonhuman factors of production is morally deficient (beauchamp and bowie 21). the summary of the categorical imperative is to act out of duty in obedience to the categorical imperative is for kant what it means to be moral. one advantage of kant's categorical imperative is that it encourages the furtherance of a mutual relationship between the professional and his/her clients or customers. the principle discourages the professional from formulating maxims that would amount to breaching the principles of veracity and mutual trust embedded in the code of ethics for the different professions. by his categorical imperative formulation, kant has made it abundantly clear that lying is bad. it constitutes a breach of trust. even though it offers some meaningful advantages over consequentialism, kant's theory is not without its difficulties. it is occasionally difficult to apply general principles to particular unusual circumstances. it can also be argued that moral duties cannot be separated from the consequences of fulfilling those obligations. for instance, the reason that the duty, to tell the truth, is such a fundamental principle is that truth-telling produces good consequences for society. another criticism often directed at kant is that although he provides us with a rational basis for rights and duties. he fails to take into consideration that duties can conflict, and he also fails to suggest a framework for resolving such conflicts. professionals often feel torn between their duty to their employers and their duty to society at large. despite its shortcomings, deontology does have some advantages. first, concrete rules that provide for few exceptions take some of the pressure off the moral agents to predict the consequences of their actions. there is a duty to act according to the rules, regardless of the outcome. second, there is more predictability in deontology, and one who follows these ideas consistently is likely to be regarded as a truthful person. virtue ethics although consequentialism and deontology theories differ in many respects, they have one thing in common: they are concerned with principles and standards for evaluating the rightness and wrongness of actions. they focus on what the moral agent should do, not on the kind of person the moral agent ought to be, that is, they ignore the character of the moral agent who acts. while consequentialists and deontologists are concerned about what humans morally ought to do and are prohibited from doing. these ethical theories are invented to answer the question “what should i do?” virtue ethics, on the other hand, is mainly concerned with the kinds of character humans should develop. there is a much greater emphasis on “character traits” and “type of person want should be”, than on 64 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june duties, obligations, rules, and rights. hence, the primary ethical question for virtue ethics is: “what should i be?” virtue ethics as a normative ethical theory is more often than not associated with the greek philosopher aristotle (384–322 b.c.e), mainly drawn from his nichomachean ethics. it is an approach in normative ethics that underscores the virtues or moral character of the moral agent, in contrast to the approach that underscores the consequences of actions of the moral agent (consequentialism) or that underscores duties or rules (deontology). deontologists and consequentialist theories do more, of course, than provide a foundation for advice on moral decisions. they offer an understanding of what ethics is concerned with. in kantian ethics, this is first and foremost principles, and also respect for rational beings (including oneself as a rational being). in consequentialist theories, the concern is with values that can be attained or missed. the emphasis of these theories is on the evaluation of actions, and the rules and principles which tell us which actions to perform. virtue ethics, on the other hand, does offer a different understanding of what ethics is concerned with. it is thought to provide a much better understanding of humans' moral lives: what it is humans strive to be in pursuing the moral life and why the moral life is important to humans (waluchow 202). virtue ethicists are less concerned with individual cases and choices than with what it is to be a good person, an individual who sustains a moral compass based on solid moral values. they would say that judging any action in isolation will miss the point, as we ought to be looking at the person's whole life, all things considered. hence, virtue ethics as a normative ethical theory emphasizes the moral agent's character and virtues rather than duties and rules, or the consequences of actions. many virtue ethicists have criticized the notion that actions are the basic subject matter of ethics. ethics, they have argued, should look not only at the kinds of actions a moral agent ought to perform, but ought to pay attention to the kind of person a moral agent should be. a more suitable approach to ethics, according to these virtue ethicists, would take the virtues such as honesty, courage, temperance, integrity, compassion, and self-control and the vices such as dishonesty, ruthlessness, greed, lack of integrity, cowardliness as the fundamental starting points for ethical reasoning (velasquez 134). to this end, virtue ethics theories deal with such questions as: “how should i live?”, “what is the good life?” and “what should i be?” it should be noted at this point that there are many accounts of virtue ethics in the west, apart from aristotle's account. other accounts include plato's, the stoics', aquinas', hume's and nietzsche's accounts of virtue ethics. moreover, there are different forms of virtue ethical theories: eudaimonist virtue ethics, agent-based virtue ethics and the ethics of care among others. our concern in this paper is with aristotle's eudaimonist virtue ethics. aristotle was a teleologist, a term associated with, but not to be mistaken with, the description “teleological” as applied to normative ethical theories such as egoism and utilitarianism. aristotle was a teleologist because he claimed that all human activities are directed towards the accomplishment of certain ends or goals. his ethics contains certain 65 okpo consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ... statements about the purpose of human beings, their place in society, and what is good for them. the greek term telos refers to the purpose, goal or end of something. aristotle considered happiness to be the end toward which all actions are directed. it is an end in itself and never a means to something else. happiness, in the words of aristotle, “being found to be something final and self-sufficient, is the end at which all actions aim” (12). this entails that happiness is the end which is sought for its own sake, and whatever an individual seeks as an end or as a good, he/she seeks it as a means to happiness. all humans seek happiness, but there is only one way to accomplish it, and that is through morality. hence, happiness becomes a moral standard for aristotle. the view that makes happiness the standard of morality is known as eudaimonism. it is derived from the greek word eudaimonia meaning “happiness” or “flourishing” or “fulfilment”. this ethical doctrine asserts that happiness is the basic reason for morality. the aim of all human actions, according to this doctrine, is to produce happiness, and actions are judged as good or right if they produce happiness, while actions that do not produce happiness are said to be bad. for aristotle, the highest good is happiness, the end of all human actions. the good life for man, according to him, is happiness and so men ought to behave to achieve happiness (popkin and stroll 7). but what then is happiness? aristotle sees happiness as an activity of the soul in conformity with virtue (aristotle 22). aristotle claims that the soul consists of two parts: one irrational and the other capable of reason, that is, rational (23). virtues, according to aristotle, are distinguished in conformity with this division of the soul. to this end, there are two types of virtues, namely intellectual virtues (wisdom or intelligence and prudence) and moral virtues (liberality and temperance). in speaking of a person's moral character, we do not describe that person as wise or knowledgeable, but as gentle or self-disciplined. we praise a wise person for his/her character or dispositions, and praiseworthy character or dispositions are the virtues (aristotle 24). intellectual virtue is the result of teaching and for that reason requires experience and time to be cultivated. what constitutes intellectual virtues, according to aristotle, include scientific knowledge, art, practical wisdom, intuitive reason, theoretical wisdom, sound deliberation, understanding and judgement (omoregbe 164). moral virtues, on the other hand, include justice, temperance, liberality, courage, gentleness, wittiness, and truthfulness among others. aristotle is of the view that virtue lies between two extremes. virtue is a mean between excess and defect. this is known as the doctrine of the 'golden mean'. for instance, courage is a mean between cowardice and recklessness; self-control is a mean between insensitivity and self-indulgence, and so on. these extremes correspond with particular vices associated with character. these moral virtues are the product of habit. an individual becomes virtuous by doing virtuous acts. for instance, you are courageous by performing acts of courage. for a better understanding of aristotle's moral virtues, we present a table of virtues and vices below (the nicomachean ethics 32): 66 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june class of action or feeling excess (vice) mean deficiency (vice) fear and confidence rashness courage cowardice pleasure and pain profligacy temperance insensitivity giving and getting small amounts of money prodigality liberality meanness giving and getting large amounts of money vulgarity magnificence paltriness major honour and dishonour vanity greatness of soul smallness of soul minor honour and dishonour ambitiousness proper ambition unambitiousness anger irascibility gentleness spiritlessness truthfulness about one’s own merits boastfulness truthfulness self-depreciation pleasantness in social amusement buffoonery wittiness boorishness pleasantness in social conduct obsequiousness friendliness surliness shame bashfulness modesty shamelessness pleasure in others’ misfortunes envy righteous indignation malice the above list will give us some idea of what aristotle means by the mean between two extremes. the virtue of courage, for instance, lies between the vices of rashness and cowardice. the coward has too much fear or fear when he/she should have none. the rash person has too little fear and excessive confidence. the courageous person has the right amount. while courage is the virtue related to the emotions of fear and confidence, gentleness is the virtue related to anger. a person who gets angry too quickly will be irascible; a person who never gets angry, even when he/she should, is spiritless. the virtuous person will get angry when he/she should, but not excessively and not contrary to reason. aristotle calls the virtue of appropriate anger gentleness. okpo consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ... 67 the question that is begging for an answer at this point is: how does an individual acquire a virtue? an individual acquires a virtue by practising virtue just as an individual becomes a swimmer in no other way than by practising swimming continually and ceaselessly until it becomes a habit in him/her. equally, virtue is acquired in no other way than by practising it continually and ceaselessly until it becomes a habit, second nature (omoregbe 165). aristotle believed that moral virtues should be acquired at a tender age, that is, from one's youth. it is difficult if not impossible to develop moral virtues in adulthood; a bad or good habit is difficult to acquire at a certain age. it is a truism that an individual cannot become outstanding at anything worthwhile suddenly. to be outstanding in any worthwhile activity an individual will need both effort and consistent training for some time. aristotle maintains that the same is true for persons attempting to develop their virtuous character traits in an attempt to live the good life; an individual cannot simply acquire these traits by decision, rather he/she must live these traits to develop them (dimmock and fisher 54). hence, developing and cultivating a moral character is something that happens through practice and habitual action. what then is the place of practical wisdom in aristotle's ethics? practical wisdom is a reaction to how an individual can arrive at a balance between two extremes in any given situation. thus, practical wisdom can be seen as the moral insight of a virtuous person by which the right course of action in any given situation can be known; only a virtuous person can be a man/woman of practical wisdom and he/she acquires and develops it through experience (omoregbe 166). consequently, practical wisdom enables an individual to correctly put his/her virtuous character into practice. in other words, practical wisdom is a necessary virtuous disposition to cultivate as without the rule of practical wisdom it may be problematic to truly practice actions that are self-controlled rather than self-indulgent, or just rather than unjust. hence, virtue is not simply an isolated action but a habit of acting well. for an action to be virtuous an individual must do it deliberately, knowing what he/she is doing, and doing it because it is a noble action. while moral virtues position an individual to behave correctly, it is necessary also to have the right intellectual (like practical wisdom) to reason properly about how to behave in a particular situation. aristotle regarded justice as the highest virtue and described it as fairness and lawfulness. he differentiated between two kinds of justice: universal justice and particular justice. universal justice is practically the same as virtue the person who possesses justice can make use of it not only by himself/herself but also when relating with others, while particular justice is of two kinds namely, distributive justice and remedial justice. distributive justice demands that material goods should be distributed fairly according to merit, while remedial justice demands fairness in human transactions (omoregbe 166). aristotle's virtue ethics is not without its limitations and objections. a common objection to aristotelian virtue ethics is based on a concern regarding 'unclear guidance' for moral agents. it has been “accused of being a theory, not of helpful moral guidance, but of unhelpful and non-specific moral platitudes” (dimmock and fisher 58). another objection has to do with his concept of happiness. for him, to achieve happiness, human 68 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june beings must act in accordance with the mean, that is, act moderately. but the question is: how can individuals apply the doctrine of the mean to the virtues of truth and honesty? happiness therefore cannot solely be the moral standard because there are areas where aristotle's doctrine of the mean would be difficult, if not impossible, to apply (okpo, value theory 30). a threefold normative ethical approach to professional ethics in the preceding section, we discussed the nature, strengths and weaknesses of the three traditional normative ethical theories. it is a truism that each of them has some positive aspects to contribute to regulating the behaviour of individuals in society. in this section, our focus is to explore a threefold normative ethical approach to professional ethics, that is, a complementary approach to professional ethics. from the clarification of terms discussed earlier, it is obvious that the terms profession and professional have normative meanings: training, skill and commitment to a set of norms. given the normative implications of these two terms profession and professional, professional associations and institutions introduce professional codes of ethics to regulate the conduct of their members. these associations and institutions exist to regulate professional practice, grant admission, and disciplinary responsibility, safeguard the interest of clients, public interest, and also the best interest of the profession itself. professional associations or institutions introduce their members to the values and norms of a specific profession and endeavour to mould their character and personality traits that are necessary to the profession through codes of conduct. ethical codes and statements of ethical principles can be read as sets of rules. however, merely following a set of ethical rules is not necessarily to act ethically. to act ethically professionals, need to be motivated by sincere intentions and the inculcation of strong ethical convictions. moreover, one major criterion of any profession is service to humanity. every profession's task is to provide socially important services, and thus satisfy important social needs, then fulfilling this task will only be possible if the professionals will comply with three groups of norms: competence, conscientiousness and trust (moore 13-15). trust stands out among these three groups of norms. trust is necessary in any relationship between members of society and the more trust there is between individuals, the better the society functions. the foundation of trust is the virtue of honesty and integrity expected of a professional because a hallmark of the virtue of any profession is that its members act with integrity (okpo 16). to this end, every professional association has trust (honesty and integrity) at the root of its professional codes of conduct. many professional codes of conduct of different professions cover areas like a conflict of interest, integrity, customer privacy, confidentiality, abuse of trust, public safety, offer, and acceptance of gratification among others. one major purpose of codes of conduct is to increase professional and ethical consciousness among professionals and their sense of ethical responsibility. adeyanju, citing mcdowell, asserts that “ethical codes enable definition of the limits of what constitutes acceptable or unacceptable behaviour, and provide a mechanism for communicating ethics policy” (78). this suggests that codes of conduct are meant to guide professionals in making more informed ethical choices. okpo consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ... 69 moreover, professional codes of conduct provide an overall declaration of ethical values and remind professionals in the profession that ethical conduct is a crucial part of their job. hence, the codes serve as reminders about peculiar professional responsibilities and obligations. the question that comes to mind is: can the professional codes of conduct ensure ethical behaviour without the professional's moral conviction and character? it is quite disappointing to know that despite the codes of conduct there still exist many unethical practices and behaviours that are prevalent among the different professions. in the course of performing their professional duties to meet up with the professional-client relationship demands, as well as the expectations of their employers and society at large, professionals are confronted with many ethical issues, dilemmas, and problems. the prevalent moral failure among different professionals shows the limitation of professional codes of conduct in arresting unethical behaviours among professionals. it is obvious that a professional code of conduct is necessary, but not sufficient without the moral growth, conviction and character of the professional. codes could be said to have a low degree of exactness; creating a code to cover every ethical issue, problem and dilemma that arises in the world of the profession is an ineffective task since it would be difficult, if not impossible, to articulate codes that would apply to every situation faced in the workplace. moral growth emanates from choice, man's internal disposition and personal conviction; it is not a function of conformity to codes of conduct alone. for this reason, a completely dishonest professional will not be persuaded to mend his/her ways only by an ethical code of conduct, instead, he/she will find a way around the codes. consequently, it is the view of this paper that the ethical foundation of professional ethics needs to be reformed on three grounds based on the three normative ethical theories discussed in the preceding section: greatest good (public good), human dignity (respect for the human person) and moral virtues. the notion of the greatest good or public good as an ethical foundation of professional ethics can be understood given the fact that human beings do not exist in isolation from their fellow human beings in society. greatest good means everything good to more than one individual, that is public good. professionals are expected to recognise the nature and importance of their relationships with other members of society: this is one of the necessary parameters required for a professional status of a profession. fundamental components of this relationship “are the professional's desire to do good for the client and to tailor the “good” to the particular needs of the client and the public at large” (blackburn and mcghee 91). and, one major dimension that characterizes professionals is “performance for the public good” (fullinwider 73). this means that professionals are required to use their skills and training for the service of the public good, as their means to achieve their personal good such as personal income. regarding human dignity, given that it is an essential feature of the conception of human rights (mccrudden 659; cohen 582), it can be contended that preserving human dignity should be considered the foundation of any human interaction regardless of its setting. to this end, protecting human dignity primarily depends on two considerations. first and foremost, there is a social feature to human dignity, and so, each human person should be perceived as principally connected to society. put differently, protecting human beings' 70 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june dignity suggests maintaining a respectable society. second, and more seriously, human beings should be treated as an end rather than as means to an end in line with kantian ethics. hence, respect for persons in a professional setting is essential to the meaning of being ethical as a professional. consequently, these thoughts should have a main role in shaping the conduct of the professional as several instances demonstrate the lack of attention to respect for persons in the relationship of professionals to clients via deceptions and other unethical practices. these unethical professionals treated their clients as a means to achieve monetary gains where no thought was given to the sustainability of the relationship. the abstraction of the pictured ethical foundation of professional ethics cannot be complete without examining the concept of moral virtue. as discussed earlier in the preceding section, aristotle sets out the foundation of moral virtue as moderation, and so, he sees moral virtue as an average that holds a middle position between two extremes that are deficiency and excess. excess and deficiency, for him, are characteristics of vice, while virtue is a moderate between the two extremes; a mean. professionals are expected to be moderate and avoid being deficient or excessive in their professional practices, that is, using good judgement to consider likely consequences and act accordingly. from our discussion so far, there is no doubt that the three normative ethical theories, discussed earlier, have something to contribute to professional ethics. it is also a truism that no single ethical approach can offer answers to the many questions arising in the professional praxis; no particular ethical approach is exempt from limitations, problems and criticism. as such there is a need to harness their different areas of strength, and then complement and harmonize them into a workable whole. a threefold normative ethical approach seeks to examine the different viewpoints and then see how professionals can eventually harmonize the whole by considering their positive aspects. we argue that an amalgamation of utilitarian ethical theory, kantian duty ethics and aristotelian virtue ethics provides the ethical framework for engendering viable professional ethics if the positive prescriptions and fundamental assumptions of these normative ethical theories are followed by professionals. the prescriptions can be grouped into three main tenets: consequences, duties and virtues. from a threefold normative ethical approach to professional ethics, consequences play a role in the application of moral principles. this approach is against the view that consequences make an action right or wrong, but it is the view that a moral agent (professional) needs to take into account the consequences when making moral choices. it disciplines a professional to be cautious before taking action. put differently, it gets the professional emotionally disciplined in attending to his/her clients. by calculating the consequence of an action, the professional is obliged to act more cautiously. hence, if the consequences of breaking a promise are bad enough, then the professional must break the promise. the professional is expected to ponder on what to do to avoid grave consequences to the greatest number of people if not all. another tenet of the threefold approach is the notion of the sense of duty. professionals must always act from a sense of duty (duty for the sake of duty), doing what is expected of them from the viewpoint of a good motive. acting for the sake of duty entails acting, not because one has anything to okpo consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ... 71 gain from the action, not because one feels like doing it or because one likes doing such things, but simply because one has a duty to do it. a sense of duty is necessary for the ethical development of any profession and professional. no profession can strive or make progress if its practitioners lack a sense of duty or do not take the sense of duty seriously, that is, duties of right actions. the third tenet is virtues. virtues talk about the good character traits in human beings, providing grounds for morally suitable actions when faced with an ethical dilemma. a good act is something that a good person does and a good person has a sure character: a set of virtues rather than vices (okpo 12). the virtues (honesty, integrity, fairness, truthfulness, and trustworthiness among others) that will be suitable in the profession will be those which allow a professional to contribute to the proper goals of the profession and in so doing lead to human flourishing. conclusion in the course of performing their professional duties to meet up with the professionalclient relationship demands, as well as the expectations of their employers and society at large, professionals are confronted with a lot of ethical issues, dilemmas and problems. given the normative implications of the two terms profession and professional, professionals are expected to be knowledgeable, skilful and ethical individuals. the prevailing moral failure among different professionals exposes their moral deficit and the inadequacy of professional codes of conduct of the different professional associations. ethics cannot be separated from professional practice. hence, a professional's moral growth emanates from choice, his/her internal disposition and personal conviction and is not a function of conformity to codes of conduct alone. consequently, there are three key elements that a professional should observe to operate within acceptable ethical parameters, which are the greatest good, respect for human persons and moral virtues. works cited adeyanju, o.d. “code of ethics and professionalism: implication for bank failure in nigeria” research journal of finance and accounting. 5(19), 2014: 75 – 86. aristotle. the nicomachean ethics, trans. by harris rackham. hertfordshire: wordsworth editions, 1996. beauchamp, tom l., and norman bowie, eds. ethical theory and business. englewood cliffs, n.j: prentice-hall, 1979. bentham, j. an introduction to the principles of morals and legislation in the utilitarians. new york: doubleday, 1991. blackburn, m. and p. mcghee. “talking virtue: professionalism in business and virtue ethics” global virtue ethics review 5(4), 2004: 90 – 122. ndbowie, n.e. business ethics: a kantian perspective. 2 edition. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2017. 72 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june clark, c. social work ethics: politics, principles and practice. basingstoke: macmillan, 2000. cohen, j.t. “rethinking human rights, democracy, and sovereignty in the age of globalisation” political theory, 36(4), 2008: 578 – 606. dimmock, mark and andrew fisher. ethics for a-level. cambridge, uk: open book publishers, 2017. ferrell, o. c., john fraedrich and linda ferrell. business ethics: ethical decision making and cases. eighth edition. australia: south-western, cengage learning, 2011. freeman, s.j. ethics: an introduction to philosophy and practice. belmont, ca: wadsworth, 2000. fullinwider, r.k. “professional codes and moral understanding”. eds. m. coady and s. block. codes of ethics and the professions. melbourne: melbourne university press, 1996. gardiner, p. “a virtue ethics approach to moral dilemmas in medicine” journal of medical ethics, 29, 2003: 291 – 316. rd hinman, l.m. ethics: a pluralistic approach to moral theory. 3 edition. belmont, ca: wadsworth, 2003. hugman, r. new approaches in ethics for the caring professions, new york: palgrave macmillan, 2005. ndkant, immanuel. foundations of the metaphysics of morals. 2 edition. translated by lewis white beck. new york: library of liberal arts, 1990. mccrudden, c. “human dignity and judicial interpretation of human rights” the european journal of international law, 19(4): 655 – 679. mill, john s. on liberty and utilitarianism. london: david campbell publishers, 1992. moore, w.e. professions: roles and rules. new york: russell sage, 1970. noddlings, n. caring: a feminine approach to ethics and moral education. berkeley, ca: university of california press, 1984. oakley, j. and d. cocking. virtue ethics and professional roles. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2003. okpo consequences, duties and virtues: a threefold normative ... 73 okpo, o. “value theory” an invitation to philosophy. ed. udo etuk. uyo: robertminder publisher, 2009: 28 – 38. okpo, o. “character and virtue in the nigerian banking profession: an aristotelian approach to professional ethics” journal of philosophy and ethics. 4(1), 2022: 8 – 18. olu-owolabi, k. a. “law and ethics as siamese twins: making a case for the legalisation of professional ethics in nigeria”. ed. aduke adebayo contemporary issues in professional ethics. ibadan: graduke publishers, 2011. omoregbe, j. ethics: a systematic and historical study. lagos: joja publishers, 1993. popkin, r. h. and a. stroll. philosophy made simple. london: w.h. allen, 1975. randall, j. h. and j. buchler. philosophy: an introduction. usa: harper& row publishers, 1971. rossouw, deon. business ethics. pretoria: southern book publishers, 1994. solomon, r.c. “corporate roles, personal virtues: an aristotelean approach to business ethics” business ethics quarterly, 2(3), 1992: 317 – 339. sumner, l.w. welfare, happiness and ethics. oxford: oxford university press, 1996. umerah, chizoba. “the teaching profession”. eds. chizoba umerah, oby akaegbobi and joy eyisi. excellence in the teaching profession. lagos: transworld times press, 2014: 39 – 51. velasquez, manuel g. business ethics: concepts and cases. seventh edition. edinburgh: pearson, 2014. waluchow, wilfrid j. the dimensions of ethics: an introduction to ethical theory. canada: broadview press, 2003. 74 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 154 abstract banditry in nigeria has become a prayer point in many homes. over the years, the term has metamorphosed and grown into a structured and organized institution, creating its own political and economic system. its organization and mode of operation has made it a huge threat to national security. people are constantly on the lookout in order to avoid being robbed, raped, kidnapped, or murdered. the response of the government to this vice has not been as swift as expected. even, the economic strength of bandits seems to be more effective than that of the military that is funded by the government. this study, therefore, explores extensively the political economy of banditry and how they have evolved over the years. for its theoretical framework, it adopted the queer ladder theory (qlt). “queer ladder theory is of the notion that organised crime thrives in contexts where the government's capacity to dictate, sanction and deter crime is poor; where public corruption is endemic; and where prospects for legitimate livelihood opportunities are slim.” studies of other researchers were carefully visited, with relevant information sifted out to guide this study. by recommendation, the paper encourages the government to invest heavily in security so that the economy of the military could outmatch that of the bandits. it also suggests to citizens to be careful of their movements, especially around the forest areas, as those are mostly the hideouts of the bandits. keywords: bandits, banditry, government, nigeria, economy, national security. introduction the nigerian state has for a long time suffered through the hands of bandits. the reports often broadcasted about banditry activities are alarming. adegoke (2020) expressed his concern when he noted that “banditry has become a harsh reality in today's nigeria society; it has come in different forms of manifesting as kidnapping, suicide attacks, selfsuicide bombing, insurgency, armed robbery and the likes.” their manifestation is becoming wider and their modes of operation are becoming bigger by the day. their weapons are sometimes said to dwarf those of the nigerian military. most often, they carry out their operations in smooth manner, and often get away with it. “hand in glove political economy of banditry in nigeria: a threat to national security emmanuel ugbedeojo ameh, ph.d department of peace studies and conflict resolution, faculty of social sciences, national open university of nigeria, abuja, nigeria & titus aliyu, ph.d department of religious studies, federal university lokoja, kogi state, nigeria. 155 with insurgency, banditry has transformed into an aggravated national security conundrum that can be rightly characterized as crime-terror convolution” (makarenko, 2004). okoli and ochim's (2016) concern, which was later reinforced by mustapha (2019)that “the increasing attacks of bandit groups have led to the destruction of lives and properties, displacement of people from their communities; and a growing numbers of widows; widowers and orphans, who now reside in internally displaced persons (idps) camps following the continued attacks of armed bandits on both farming and pastoral communities across different areas of the states.” this is something that should reinforce serious concern. the number of people that have been rendered as internally displaced are of numbers that are almost uncountable, mostly across the northern states. in commemoration of their smooth operations, which, of course, is a huge problem to the society, they keep building structures, and expanding their territories. olaniyan (2014) noted that “reports indicate the flourishing of bandit groups, whose members were seen displaying automatic weapons, terrorising herders? settlements, farms, villages and the highways with the mission of killing people, kidnapping and pillaging cows.” the government, in many ways, have contributed to the development and expansion of banditry, in that some of their actions are ways of agitating their grievances, thereby causing harms to innocent citizens. “banditry may well be a political economy problem resulting from the absence of equitable access to resources and a deliberate agenda to exclude others from social formations.” (oluyemi-kusa &salihu, 2016). the effect of banditry is mostly tragic, leading to loss of lives of innocent people, loss of properties, and, of course, retrogression in the country's economy. “banditry leads to disruption of life as we know it. the desire to avoid strife and its attendant consequences leads to displacement and loss of lives and properties. armed bandit also leads to the existence of constant fear of attacks, which take away human dignity and people's ability to organize, seek and engage in livelihoods” (this day, 2014). porter (2007) put it in a more succinct manner when it said that “this lone avenue for survival—petty trading is disrupted by banditry.” “banditry counts as one of the critical challenges to nigeria's contemporary national security” (okoli, 2021). “this is in view of its fatal consequences in various parts of the country over the years” (kuna and jibrin, 2016). some of the actions of the bandits are actually their chosen ways of forcing the government to acknowledge them. some of the bandits often release videos after attacks, directing their messages to the government. at times, in cases where innocent citizens have been adopted, they demand ransom from the government. conceptual discourse shalangwa (2013) regards “banditry as the practice of raiding and attacking victims by members of an armed group, whether or not premeditated, using weapons of offence or defence, especially in semi-organised groups for the purpose of overpowering the victim aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june 156 and obtaining loot or achieving some political goals. such bandits are usually perceived as outlaws, desperate and lawless marauders who do not have a definite residence or destination but roam around the forest and mountains to avoid being identified, detected and arrested.” egwu (2016) “in a restricted manner, described banditry as a practice of stealing cattle and animals from herders or raiding of cattle from their ranches.” in the same vein, banditry is reflected in criminal escapades like cattle rustling, kidnapping, armed robbery, drug abuse, arson, rape and the brazen and gruesome massacre of people of agrarian communities with sophisticated weapons by suspected herdsmen and reprisal attacks from surviving victims, a development that has been brought to the front burner of national security (uche &iwuamadi, 2018). “however, where the term banditry is connected to rural, it implies a group of rural outlawed involved in illicit activities such as raiding of villages, kidnappings and cattle rustling for primitive accumulation of wealth. thus, bandits are gang groups terrorising and dispossessing local people or travellers of their valuable items or properties such as merchandise, money, cattle, camel, and sheep, among others. they operate within and along rural borders with the assistance of their local collaborators including in some cases, state agents deployed to work for the safety and security of the people” (abdullahi, 2019).in this regard, onimode (2001) highlights that“car snatching robbery of homes and offices, way-laying of travellers (high-way robbery) are common forms of armed robbery in african countries. their incidence has been rising since the african crises started in the 1980s.” “economic or political interests motivate banditry. the former refers to banditries motivated by the imperative of material accumulation while the latter has to do with those driven by the quest to rob, to assault or to liquidate a person or a group of persons based on political or ideological dispositions” (okoli &ugwu, 2019).according to rotberg (2007), ''crime against persons, including murder, rape, and robbery has grown in scale and viciousness in nigeria since 1999”. the evolution of this menace has been a huge threat to national security. some researchers like igbuzor (2011) and oche (2001) while conceptualising security placed importance on the “absence of threats to peace, stability, national cohesion, political and socioeconomic objectives of a country.”nwanegbo and odigbo (2913) described security as “stability and continuity of livelihood (stable and steady income), predictability of daily life (knowing what to expect), protection from crime (feeling safe), and freedom from psychological harm (safety or protection from emotional stress which results from the assurance or knowing that one is wanted, accepted, loved and protected in one's community or neighbourhood and by people around.” security embraces all measures designed to protect and safeguard the citizenry and the resources of individuals, groups, businesses and the nation against sabotage or violent occurrence (ogunleye, adewale, alese, & ogunde,2013). ameh & aliyu political economy of banditry in nigeria: a threat... 157 the inability of the country's security system to put banditry under subjection has regarded major parts of the country as insecure. in beland's opinion, “insecurity is the state of fear or anxiety stemming from a concrete or alleged lack of protection.”achumba, ighomereho and akpor-rabaro(2013) defined insecurity from two perceptions. firstly, “insecurity is the state of being open or subject to danger or threat of danger, where danger is the condition of being susceptible to harm or injury. secondly insecurity is the state of being exposed to risk or anxiety, where anxiety is a vague unpleasant emotion that is experienced in anticipation of some misfortune.” methodology due to the nature of the problem under investigation, qualitative method was used in data collection. qualitative method mainly depends on secondary source of data like historical documents, books, magazines, journal articles, websites, etc. however, it is the nature of our investigation that defines this method of data collection adopted. the study adopted a content analysis approach whereby data was mainly obtained through extensive literature from books, scholarly journal articles and relevant internet materials. each of the data used to conduct this study is relevant to the study and it enabled the reliability and credibility of the study. theoretical framework this paper adopted queer ladder theory (qlt) as its theoretical framework. queer ladder theory is associated with the american sociology, daniel bell (1919-2011). the framework was coined in his attempt to explain the “instrumental essence of organised crime as a desperate means of socio—economic empowerment and social climbing.”“often ascribed to queer ladder theory is the notion that organised crime thrives in contexts where the government's capacity to dictate, sanction and deter crime is poor; where public corruption is endemic; and where prospects for legitimate livelihood opportunities are slim” (nwoye, 2000; lyman, 2007). the absence of opposition only gives the bandits a viable atmosphere to thrive. as a result, they wield power beyond imagination and build their own mini-economy in such a way that their structure becomes impenetrable. “the basic assumptions of qlt are; organised crime is an instrumental behaviour, it is a means to an end; it is an instrument of social climbing and/or socio-economic advancement; and it is a measure to accumulate wealth and build power” (mallory, 2007; okoli&orinya, 2013).“under these circumstances, the incentive to indulge in crime is high, while deterrence fromcriminal living is low. in other words, the benefits of committing a crime surpass the costs and/or risks involved. this creates pretext for criminal impunity and franchise” (okoli&orinya, 2013). the concept of “ladder” in qlt signifies untoward pattern of social mobility. hence, those who take to organised crime, such banditry, do so as a desperate means of economic accumulation and socio-economic empowerment (mustapha, 2019).“therefore, a necessary consequence of this trend is prevalence in crime rate and a state of insecurity” (okoli&orinya, 2013). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june 158 in application to the context of this paper, “qlt enables one to come to terms with the prevalence of organised crime in northwest region of nigeria. in this regard, it is observed that the phenomenon of banditry in northwest nigeria has been driven by criminal quest for economic accumulation in an environment. this has been worsened by the prevailing socio-economic discontent and attendant livelihood crisis in the state, in addition to the seeming indolence of relevant government agencies towards arresting the ugly situation”(rosenje& adeniyi, 2021). banditry from the historical standpoint during the nineteenth century in europe and the americas, a bandit was known as a freedom fighter whose objective was to make sure that the oppressed and subjugated are liberated. in the words of warto (1994), “a bandit in the 19th century europe and americas was a freedom fighter whose aim was partly to ensure the emancipation of the oppressed from the upper class or colonised over the colonizer.”in mexico, “mexicans have warm regards and respect for those “social workers? termed bandits, while on the contrary, the state often considered them as nuisance and outlaws that need to be eradicated” (watts, 1987). as a result, the common man of the pre-industrial age sees bandits as heroes, while the government sees them as outlaws and hoodlums. this was because the common man is mostly oppressed by the fat government, automatically making the government a major target of bandits. bandits in traditional african setting are, however, very different from the bandits of the americas and europe. according to curott and fink (2008),“they are specialised in armed robbery and other related crimes.”rufa'i (2018) further added that “the most common feature of banditry in africa has been maiming, killing and wanton destruction of property, hence, it has a direct relationship with cattle rustling.” “since most herdsmen could do anything possible to prevent the rustling of their herds, then the bandit also apply force with the aid of small arms and light weapons (salws) to effect the stealing of livestock” (addo, 2006). in many ways, the idea of the introduction of armed weapon into banditry has further increase the threat of it therein.“hence, the application of force during livestock theft is what is herein considered cattle rustling and armed banditry” (murtala, 2018). while the idea of banditry has been a major part of the history of the americas and europe, it has also been a long debacle in africa, especially in west africa. “its origin and development are as old as the sub-region itself dating back to inter-tribal periods characterised by conflicts and wars over scarce economic resources and territorial expansion for political influence. most parts of africa experienced these forms of conflicts during the slave trading, colonial, and post-colonial periods”(rosenje& adeniyi, 2021). abdullahi (2019) is of the opinion that “though there have been remarkable changes on the nature and pattern of banditry and other forms of conflicts in west africa, the socio-economic and political reasons remain significant in explaining the prevalence of the phenomenon in the sub-region.” he went further to assert that “perhaps this explains why the struggle for political independence and the subsequent establishment of the post-colonial state in west africa were considered as some of the major events which shaped the pattern of banditry in the sub-region. it also suggests that socio-economic and political realities could be used to explain the intensity, prevalence, and the dynamics of banditry as evident in different parts of west africa. for instance, in ameh & aliyu political economy of banditry in nigeria: a threat... 159 tillaberi and tahoua region of niger republic, banditry such as cattle and sheep rustling as well as the killing of innocent citizens in border communities has a strong connection with the general poverty situation of the people arising from poor governance of the country” (abdullahi, 2019). the progression of banditry in mali, for instance, has been associated with religious extremist groups which, over time has been provoked byfeeble state institutions as it relates to service delivery. the united nation office for west africa and the sahel (2018) reports that “weak state institutions, insurgency, and lawlessness have pushed more pastoralists into religious extremism, leading to rising in bandits' activities in northern mali.”abdullahi (2019) added that “the frequency of bandits' activities has created tensions between farmers and herders as well as exacerbated the proliferation of armed groups in different regions of mali.”in mauritania, however, transborder banditry by the resident groups as well as encounters that relates to resource management and distribution of pastoralists lands clarifies the nature and form of rural banditry in the country. “unlike mali and niger, competition over resources, particularly water resources, pasture, and animal feeds led to a rapid increase of banditry in mauritania” (unowas, 2018). “similarly, livestock theft is becoming a trans-border criminal activity affecting movement and relations along burkina faso and ghanaian border. local bandit groups mostly burkinabe connived with traditional elites to rustle livestock and share the proceeds of their criminality” (abdullahi, 2019). being the state with the largest population in west africa, nigeria too is faced with very serious banditry threats. this menace has found its way into the country even before the country attained its political entity. in regard to this, jaafar (2018) opined that “there were recorded instances of banditry in the colonial nigeria as far back as the 1930s.” putting this claim in a sort of historical perspective, jaafar clarifies that “in those days, wayfarers and merchants travelling along our local economic roads usually faced the threats and dangers of ambush from nondescript bandits. armed bandits and criminals were known to be targeting goods ferried on the back of donkeys, camels and ox carts. those bandits on our trade routes would forcefully take those goods and disappear into the bush. that is just one dimension of the problem then. in other instances, the bandits would sometimes raid farming communities and villages with the intent of wilful killing and wanton destruction of property. during such raids, the bandits would destroy virtually everything in their path, including valuables, farm produce, etc. this subculture has been in existence even before the coming of colonialists to the territories of northern nigeria” (jaafar, 2018). “although banditry is as old as nigeria, it has nevertheless gradually transformed in scope and dimension overtime from its rudimentary phase, as affirmed by the foregoing jaafar's citation, to a more complex and complicated pattern of criminality” (centre for democracy and development, 2015; egwu 2016). the contemporary evolution of banditry could be understood against the framework of the prevailing security tensions in nigeria. “accordingly, gangs of criminal, often youth from farming and herding communities and/or local bandits, take advantage of the growing insecurity, fear and cyclical attacks to loot villages, engage in highway robbery, and rustle cattle for personal gain. both farming and herding communities often suffer from this criminality” (bagu and smith, 2017; okoli&ugwu, 2019). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june the economy of banditry in nigeria. the economy of banditry in nigeria has grown beyond just robbing and smuggling petty things. these days, banditry has built its own political economy, and operated in a more structural manner. the north-western part of nigeria consists of drivers of banditry in socio-existential conditions that exemplify the interior as well as the frontiers of the region. “most attacks occur in remote villages, close to forested regions in the north-west where there is little security presence” (gaye, 2018).“in likewise manner, banditry occurs in large swathes of forest reserves that are generallyout of the reach of the nigerian security operatives. most of the bandit activities take place in state-owned reserves such as the kamuku, kiyanbana, and fagore forests in northern nigeria. the forests offer perfect locations as hide outs for the criminals to evade arrest from security forces” (rosenje& adeniyi, 2021). “the reluctance of the nigerian security operatives to enter these forest areas seems to be largely due to inefficiency, connivance of the local people, lack of sophisticated equipment and poor motivation of the nigerian security forces” (olaniyan & yahaya, 2016). the high rate of unemployment is yet another factor that greatly promotes the act of banditry. this has invariably led to high rate of poverty, which often agitate some of the people and force them to indulge in criminal acts.“the poverty index in the northwest is 77.7% (nbs, 2012; rosenje&moliki, 2016). “these figures have continued to drastically increase yearly as nigerian institutions keep graduating batches of youths with the prior impression of getting better jobs and opportunities after graduation” (adegoke, 2019). “the anxiety from nigerian graduates that later turn to frustration, and then to aggression on the government is what has fuelled the emergence of most of these bandit attacks and security threats in the country” (suleiman, 2017; mustapha, 2019). additionally,kilishi, mobolaji, usman, yakubu and yaru(2014 as cited in abdulkabir, 2017) campaigned that “the rising wave of crime in nigeria has been blamed on the increasing level of unemployment.”as a result, the idle youths tend to be occupied in unlawful activities in order to meet up with modern inclinations. “suffice to say that the youths easily get enticed to riches as a result of the prevailing 'get rich quick syndrome' that pervade the country. hence, they tend to do whatever it takes to get rich quick. therefore, the nigeria's high rate of unemployment, especially the increasing rate of youth's unemployment is what majorly prompts the jobless youths in the country to resort to violent crime like banditry” (adagba, ugwu, &eme, 2012; epron, 2019). it is almost unarguable that the nation's weak security and intelligence system contributes to the alarming rate of banditry activities. “this could have possibly been caused by the inadequate equipment for the security arm of government, both in weaponry and training” (achumba, ighomereho, & akpor-rabaro,2013). “this is in addition to poor attitudinal and behavioural disposition of security personnel. in many cases, security personnel assigned to deal with given security situations lack the expertise and equipment to handle the situations in a way to prevent them from occurring. even when these exist, some personnel get influenced by ethnic, religious or communal sentiment and are easily prejudiced by their personal interest to serve their people, rather than the nation” (achumba, ighomereho, &akpor-rabaro, 2013). “instead of being national watchdogs and defending national interest and values, and protecting people from being harmed by 160 ameh & aliyu political economy of banditry in nigeria: a threat... criminals, they soon become saboteurs of government efforts, by supporting and fuelling insecurity through either leaking vital security information or conniving with criminals to acquire weapons or to escape the long arm of the law” (offem&ichoku, 2015). while poverty contributes majorly to the thriving economy of banditry in nigeria, not all forms of criminal acts could be linked to it. according to epron (2014) and adegoke (2019),“it was discovered that because of the attractive benefits accruing from banditry activity, most people, especially the youths tend to join the bandit gangs in the northwest of nigeria.” another major factor of the thriving of banditry in nigeria that is worthy of consideration is the issue of arms proliferation. “there has been an incremental influx of small arms and light weapons (salws) into nigeria from the sahel since the fall of ghadaffi's regime in libya” (gaye, 2018). “these arms and weapons end up in the hands of non-state actors like terrorists, militants and bandits, who use them to terrorise individuals and communities. in september 2018, military troops in joint operations with personnel of the department of state service (dss) arrested two suspected illicit arms dealers along funtua-gusau road with 1,479 rounds of 7.62mm (special) ammunition, on their way to deliver the 10weapons to armed bandits” (adeniyi 2018). “incidents such as this have been prevalent in various states in nigeria where banditry has become the order of the day” (okoli&ugwu, 2019). chikwuma and francis (2014) observes that “crimes thrive in context where there's little deterrence. in most of nigeria's rural communities, there are many opportunities for criminal activity. some of these communities are located in remote areas where there is little or no government presence. more importantly, households are in some cases separated by and interspersed with forest areas. this renders them vulnerable to banditry. the situation is made worse by the absence of effective community policing mechanisms capable of addressing the hinterlands peculiar security challenges.”“geography plays a role, too. north-western nigeria's forestlands are vast, rugged and hazardous. they are also grossly under policed. some of the forests run alongside the diverse porous borderlines on the region's frontiers. borders are poorly delineated, under-policed and thus not well governed. the consequences of this are an abundance of nefarious activity, often facilitated by the criminal syndicates” (rufai, 2018). “the areas are also interspersed by diverse forested landscapes, some of which are dotted by wetlands, rocks and caves. apart from being separated from each other, they are equally far separated from the centres of governance at the local and state levels. the forestlands of the region are vast, rugged and hazardous. most importantly, they are grossly under-policed to the point that makes them conducive for all forms of jungle criminality. in view of this, violent crimes, such as banditry, have festered and thrived in such forested areas. most attacks occur in remote villages, close to forested regions in the north-west where there is little security presence” (gaye, 2018). this enables them to execute their plans in more organized ways, and of course, expand their territories and establish their presence in more places. 161 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june conclusion banditry, over the years, has evolve and become a huge threat to humanity. in nigeria, during the nineteenth century, bandits were known to strike only people with merchandise, collecting their goods and running into the bush. today, the word bandits often bring fear into the minds of people. they are now known to be armed, operating in different dimensions, from kidnapping, to raping, and even murdering people when ransom isn't paid quickly. travellers are sceptical as to which mean of transportation to use as there are constant reports of bandits attacking travellers taking over the headlines. the slow response of the government has further strengthened the political system of banditry, making them to organize their structure and operate in more systematic and organize ways. in most of those reports, these bandits often carry out their operations smoothly, without the intervention of security forces.as a result, these bandits use this to brainwash their recruits during recruitment procedures, assuring them that they would not be intercepted upon by the security. to dispute that this is working will only be a denial of the reality, as it is obvious that the body of bandits in the country keeps enlarging by the day. recommendations in order that the national security of the country might be strengthened, the following recommendations are made: 1. the political and economic structure of bandits need to be disrupted. for this to happen, the national security and intelligence needs to be proactive and start invading the areas where these bandits often seek refuge. 2. citizens should be absolutely careful of the places they go to. most at times, these bandits use the forests as their hideouts. it is therefore advised that forests area, especially area that has history with violence, should be avoided. 3. government needs to invest more in national security, as it has often been reported that the economic strength of the bandits seems to far be stronger than that of the military. it will be difficult to combat these criminals with flimsy weapons when the bandits themselves are making use of sophisticated weapons. 4. anytime bandits are carrying out their operations, which often take hours in some instances, reports should quickly be made to the authorities, and it is expected that the authorities take adequate and immediate steps that would liberate the people. 162 ameh & aliyu political economy of banditry in nigeria: a threat... references abdulkabir, o. s. (2017). causes and incisive solutions to the widespread of kidnapping in nigeria current administration: under scholastic scrutiny. journal of political sciences and public affairs. 5(2), 23320761. abdullahi, a. (2019). rural banditry, regional security, and integration in west africa. journal of social and political sciences, 2(3), 644-654. achumba, i. c., ighomereho, o. s. &akpor-rabaro, m. o. m. (2013). security challenges in nigeria and the implications for business activities and sustainable development.journal of economics and sustainable development, 4(2), 22222855. adagba, o., ugwu, s. c. &eme, o. i. (2012). activities of boko haram and insecurity question in nigeria, arabian journal of business and management review, 1(9), 77-99 addo, p. (2006). cross-border criminal activities in west africa: options for effective responses. kofi annan international peace keeping training centre cantonments, accra ghana. adegoke, s. g.(2020). “insurgency, armed banditry and corruption in nigeria: the bane of socioeconomic underdevelopment.” international journal of advance academic studies, 2(1), 17-26 bagu, c. & smith, k. (2017).past is prologue: criminality and reprisal attacks in nigeria's middle belt, washington, dc: search for common ground. beland, d. (2005). the political construction of collective insecurity: from moral panic to blame avoidance and organized irresponsibility. center for european studies, working paper series 126. centre for democracy and development [cdd] (2015). policy brief: addressing rural banditry in northern nigeria. abuja: centre for democracy and development, nigeria. chikwuma, a. and francis, n. (2014). cattle rustling and diabetics of security in northern nigeria. international journal of liberal arts and social science. 2 (3), 109-117. curott, n. a. & fink, a. d. (2008). bandit heroes: social, mythical or rational. the american journal of economics and sociology egwu, s. (2016). the political economy of rural banditry in contemporary nigeria. in kuna, m. j. and ibrahim, j (eds.). rural banditry and conflicts in northern nigeria, abuja: centre for democracy and development. igbuzor, o. (2011). peace and security education: a critical factor for sustainablepeace and national development. international journal of peace and development studies, 2(1), 1-7. jaafar, j. (2018). rural banditry, urban violence and the rise of oligarchy by professor abubakar liman. retrieved from: https://dailynigerian. com/rural-banditryurban-violence-and-the-rise-of-oligarchyby-prof-abubakar-liman/> kilishi, a. a., mobolaji, h. i, usman. a., yakubu, a. t., yaru, m. a. (2014). the effect ofunemploymenton crime in nigeria: a panel data analysis. british journal of 163 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june economics, management and trade, 4, 880-895. kuna, m. &jibrin i. (2016). “rural banditry and conflicts in northern nigeria. centre for democracy and development” lyman, p. m. g. (2007). organised crime (4th ed). prentice hall: person education inc makarenko, t. (2004) “the crime-terror continuum: tracing the interplay between transnational organised crime and terrorism.” global crime 6 (1), 129-145. mallory, s. (2007). theories on the continued existence of organised crime. sadbury massachusetts: jones and barlet publishers murtala, a. r. (2018). cattle rustling and armed banditry along nigeria-niger borderlands. iosr journal of humanities and social science (iosr-jhss), 23(4), 66-73. mustapha, u. n. (2019). armed banditry and internal security in zamfarastate. internationaljournal of scientific & engineering research, 10(8), 1219-1226. national bureau of statistics (nbs, 2012). the nigerian poverty profile 2010 report(pp.12-14). abuja: national bureau of statistics. nwanegbo, c. j. &odigbo, j. (2013). international journal of humanities and social science, 3(4), 285-291. nwoye, k.o. (2000). corruption, leadership and dialectics of development in africa: an explanatory perspective. enugu: associated printers and litho oche, o. (2001). democratization and the management of african security. nigerian journal of international affairs, 13(1). offem, o. o. &ichoku, f. u. (2015). security challenges and its implication for education business activities in nigeria. ebonyi state college of education, ikwo journal of educational research (ebscoeijer), 3(1), 78-89 ogunleye, g. o., adewale, o. s., alese, b. k. &ogunde, a. o. (2013). a computerbased-securityframework for crime prevention in nigeria. a paper presented at the 10th international conference of the nigeria computer society held from july 25th-29th lagos. olaniyan, a. & yahaya, a. (2016). cows, bandits, and violent conflicts: understanding cattle rustling in northern nigeria. africa spectrum, 51(3), 93-105. oluyemi-kusa d. &salihu a. (2016) “the effect of armed banditry on rural women's livelihood and security: case study of kaduna & plateau states, nigeria” okoli a. c.(2021). “of banditry and 'human rustling': the scourge of kidnapping in northern nigeria” department of political science, federal university of lafia, nigeria okoli, a. c. &ochim, f. (2016) “forestlands and national security in nigeria: a threatimport analysis.”. iiard international journal of political and administrative studies, 2(2), 43-53. okoli, a. c. &orinya, s. (2013). oil pipeline vandalism and nigeria's national security.global journal of human social sciences, xiii(v), 67-75 okoli, a. c. &ugwu, a. c. (2019). of marauders and brigands: scoping the threat of rural banditry in nigeria's north west. brazilian journal of african studies, 4(8), 201-222. porter (2007) transport, (im)mobility & spatial poverty traps: issues affecting rural women & girl-children in sub-saharan africa transport www.dur.ac.uk/.../porter 164 ameh & aliyu political economy of banditry in nigeria: a threat... ... retrieved august 12, 2014 rosenje, m. o. & adeniyi o. p. (2021) the impact of banditry on nigeria's security in the fourth republic: an evaluation of nigeria's northwest; department of political science. tai solarin university of education ijagun, p. m. b. 2118, ijebu-ode, ogun state. rosenje, m. o. &moliki, a. o. (2016). the effects of pervasive poverty on national security in nigeria (2000-2014). ago-iwoye journal of social and behavioural sciences, 5(1). 83-111. rotberg, r. (2007). ''nigeria: elections and continuing challenges'' in lyman, princeton and dorff, patricia (eds). beyond humanitarianism: what you need to know about africa and why it matters: new york: brookings. rufai, a. (2018). vigilante groups and rural banditry in zamfara state: excesses and contradictions. international journal of humanities and social science inventions 7(6): 69. rufa'i, m. a. (2018). cattle rustling and armed banditry along nigeria-niger borderlands. journal of humanities and social science, 23(4), 66-73. shalangwa, m. w. (2013). the nature and consequences of armed banditry in border communities of adamawa state, nigeria. m.sc. thesis submitted to the school of post-graduate studies, ahmadu bello university, zaria, nigeria. suleiman, a. o. (2017). thematic appraisal on the impulsive upsurge of yahoo-yahoo in the 21st century in nigeria: quranic standpoint. this day (2014) when armed robbers raid villages hjp://www.thisdaylive.com/ articles/when-armed -robbers-raid-villages/1679974retrieved february 3, 2015 uche, j. c. &iwuamadi, c. k. (2018). nigeria: rural banditry and community resilience in the nimbo community. conflict studies quarterly, (24), 71-82. warto, p. a. (1994). the social banditry in the rural areas of rembang by the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. international journal for history studies,3(1). watts, m. (1987). banditry, rebellion and social protest in africa: a review. african economic history, (16), 22-48 165 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 143 abstract philosophical anthropology is concerned with the questions of what man is and his place in the universe. philosophers, thinkers, and intellectuals of all ages have provided a variety of answers to these questions. man has been defined as "a rational animal," "god's image," and "a recent evolutionary product on our planet." according to max scheler, these three views are incompatible with one another and thus lack a unified view of man. he believes that the true nature of man remains unknown to us. in light of different philosophers' conceptions of man, this study exposes and evaluates the concept of man against the backdrop of scheler's philosophical anthropology. the work examines max scheler's concept of man as presented in his book man's place in nature, as well as references to other relevant materials. the significance of this study is that it allows man to gain a better understanding of himself from scheler's perspective. the researcher employs the analytic method of research. the researcher discovers during the course of this work that man can only actualize his being when he emerges from the illusions of his impulses into his conscious self. keywords: philo-anthropological, differentiation, man and universe. introduction the question of what man is and where he fits in the universe is central to philosophical anthropology. philosophers, thinkers, and intellectuals of all ages have provided a variety of answers to these questions. max scheler observes that these perspectives are incompatible with one another and that the true nature of man remains unknown to us. as a result, various philosophers, theologians, and scientists' answers to what man is and his place in the cosmos are limited and unsatisfactory. according to scheler, the limitations of these answers stem from the fact that man has only been studied in parts rather than in his entirety. in this regard, scheler observes that, as valuable as the special sciences dealing with man such as psychology, physiology, biology, and so on are, they tend to conceal rather than reveal his nature. because of the partiality of the responses thus far, a wholistic definition of man remains elusive. can philosophical anthropology provide the sought-after wholistic definition based on these partial answers? max scheler believes so. man and its various definitions the issue of man's unique nature and place in the universe is not a new one in the world of philosophers, scholars, and intellectuals. to name a few, philosophers such as plato, a philo-anthropological differentiation of man from other beings in the universe: a schelerian perceptive peter c. osuji, ph.d. cebu, philippines. 144 aristotle, st augustine, thomas aquinas, descartes, hegel, friedrich nietzsche, ernst cassirer, martin buber, ortega y gasset, and jean paul sartre have addressed this issue. as a result, it has been articulated from antiquity to the present. however, some of the above-mentioned philosophers' definitions of man will be considered. plato (1967) defines man as a being composed of the body and the soul. in his republic, plato notes that "this composite structure of body and soul is called a living being" (plato, 1967, p. 496). despite this composite structure, plato sees man essentially from the point of view of the soul because, for him, the soul is the principle or indispensable part without which one cannot talk of man, and thus this part that is indispensable defines man (plato, 1967, p. 807). this is because, according to plato, man is essentially made up of three parts: the soul, the body, and the mind. plato believes that the intellectual or rational part of man's soul allows him to realise himself as a man. this demonstrates that the higher one's intellectual level, the more one becomes what one is supposed to be, namely man. given this, it is clear that for plato, man is primarily the soul due to the soul's rationality or intellectuality. unlike plato, aristotle (1975) considers the body to be an essential part of man. for him, man is essentially made up of body and soul. the soul plays the role of the form in man. it does not appear to be incorruptible, that is, capable of escaping the corruption of the body and thus immortal, as plato believed. aristotle's conception of the soul as the form of the body suggested an organic unity of man, which could be defined as a "rational animal" (aristotle, 1975). in viewing man as a union of soul and body tainted by original sin and motivated by the happiness principle, st augustine (1958) drew on scriptural as well as philosophical sources. augustine, inspired by plato, maintained the same dichotomy between soul and body, the reduction of man to soul, and the complete autonomy of intellective knowledge with regard to any contribution of the body. augustine also believes that every living creature [man] has both a soul and a body. he claims that the soul is unquestionably superior to the body of these two components. augustine maintains that even when the soul is vicious and weak, it is superior to the healthiest and strongest body. since, according to augustine, the soul is better than the body and higher by nature, he asserts that the soul is better than the body, just as gold, even when dirty, is worth more than a sliver or lead, however pure (augustine, 1958, p. 474). augustine also describes man as "the image of god." "when god created man in his own image, he endowed him with a soul so endowed with reason and intelligence that it ranks man higher than all the other creatures of the earth, sea, and air," he writes (augustine, 1958, p. 265). augustine maintains that "we ourselves can recognise in ourselves an image of god, in the sense of the trinity," bolstering the idea of man as an image of god, a being created by god in his image and likeness (augustine, 1958, p. 235). for him, it's just an image, and a very distant one at that. as a result, there is no issue of identity or consubstantiality with god. nonetheless, it is an image that, by nature, is closer to god than anything else in all creation, and one that can be perfected into a still closer resemblance through transforming grace... 235 (augustine, 1958). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june 145 in his definition of man, aquinas (1939) praised the efforts of his predecessors plato and aristotle. he maintained that plato's anthropology was in significant agreement with faith but lacked philosophical depth. philosophically, aristotle's concept of man was superior, but it was incompatible with christian revelation. in the same vein, he agreed that man is fundamentally made up of body and soul. following aristotle, thomas contends that man is not essentially the soul, but rather that there is a profound and substantial unity between the soul and body. as a result, for thomas, body and soul are so intertwined that the soul cannot be found in any part of the body. as a result, the soul is present in the entire body as well as in each individual part of the body. thomas, like augustine, believes that man is an image of god (aquinas, 1939, p. 373). he, on the other hand, sees god as a kind of prototype for man. he maintains that unless the image is perfect in every way, it is not equal to its prototype. because finite man cannot be perfect, he will always be an imperfect image of god. descartes (1993) believes that man is "a thinking thing," and thus asserts in his meditation, "i am therefore precisely nothing but a thinking thing; that is, a mind, or intellect..., yet i am a true thing and am truly existing; but what kind of thing? i have already said it: a thinking thing" (descartes, 1993, p. 19). he maintains that his thinking self is distinct from his physical self. the essence of man is that which is distinct from his body and thinks independently of the body. descartes later realised that the thinking thing makes use of the body because sensation is experienced through the body. descartes writes in this regard, "nature also teaches not merely that i am present to my body in the way that a sailor is present in a ship, but that i am most tightly joined and, so to speak, commingled with it, so that i and the body constitute one single thing." for if this were not the case, i, as a mere thinking being, would not feel pain when the body is injured; rather, i would perceive the wound through pure intellect, just as a sailor perceives whether anything in his ship is broken through sight. and, instead of having mixed feelings of hunger and thirst, i should recognise when my body requires food or drink. for clearly, these sensations of thirst, hunger, pain, and so on are nothing more than a confused mode of thinking resulting from the union, or commingling, of the mind and the body (descartes, 1993, p. 53). as a result, man is a composite of body and soul for him. hegel (1953) sees man as a synthesis of nature and spirit, the essence of which is spirit. hegel asserts in his work reason in history that man is "part nature and part spirit, but his essence is spirit" (hegel, 1953, p. xxv). in light of this emphasis on spirit, hegel considers man to be a spiritual being. thus, as man grows spiritually, he becomes more conscious of himself; and as he becomes more conscious of himself, he becomes himself. according to buber (1968), man is "the creature capable of entering into living relation with the world and things, with men both as individuals and as many, and with the 'mystery of being,' which is dimly apparent through all this but infinitely transcends it" (buber, 1968, p. 16). through this living relationship with things, one's life becomes open to another, allowing one to experience the mystery of the other being within the mystery osuji a philo-anthropological differentiation of man ... 146 of one's own. this conception of man implies that man is a social being who discovers himself through interactions with others. an exposition of max scheler's philosophical anthropology because of the various approaches to him, man as a being in the cosmos has been understood differently. in this regard, scheler (1962) maintains in his man's place in nature that there are three irreconcilable ways of thinking about man in the western world. he defined these three traditional ways of thinking about man as "the jewishchristian tradition, the greek tradition, and modern science and genetic psychology" (scheler, 1962, p. 5). according to scheler (1962), the ideas of man as "an image of god," a "rational animal," and a "evolutionary animal" are incompatible. "as a result, we have scientific, philosophical, and theological explanations for man." as a result, we lack a unified concept of man (p.5). max scheler began by discussing the nature of man in relation to animals and plants, as well as man's unique metaphysical place in the universe, in order to arrive at a unified definition of man. according to scheler, the word man has a "deceptive ambiguity" in this context (scheler, 1962). according to scheler (1962), man has been referred to as "a being that is part of the world of living things in general" (p.7). for him, man represents the specific morphological characteristics of a subclass of vertebrate and mammals, which is why the human species [man] is simply another branch of the animal kingdom in scientific discourse. however, according to max scheler, "regardless of the specific form of this conceptual model, the living being described as man is not only subordinate to the concept "animal," but occupies a relatively small corner of the animal kingdom (scheler, 1962). man, on the other hand, is fundamentally different from anything found in the animal kingdom or among living things in general. in fact, it denotes a set of characteristics that must be distinguished from the concept "animal," which encompasses all mammals and vertebrates. in this sense, according to max scheler, man is "much opposed to infusorium stentor as to the chimpanzee, although it is obvious that man resembles the chimpanzee" (scheler, 1962). for scheler, man on this level must have a different meaning and an entirely different origin than the former, which examines man as a being who is a part of the world of living things in general (scheler, 1962). as a result, scheler maintains that the essential nature of man is this second concept of man, which examines man not as a being that is part of the world of living things in general. the differentiation of man from other beings in the universe in contrast to the naturalists' or evolutionists' views of man, which reduced man to the level of psychic or natural being (animal and plant), scheler maintains that there is something unique to man that is not based on intelligence. it would be a mistake, according to scheler, to think that the new element that gives man his unique characteristics is nothing more than a new essential form of being added to the previous aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june 147 stages of psychic life-the vital impulse, instinct, associative memory, intelligence, and choice; in other words, an element that still belongs to psychic and vital functions and capacities and falls under the jurisdiction of psychology and biology (scheler, p.36). scheler, on the other hand, claims that "the nature of man...exceeds the capacity for choice and intelligence and would not be reached even if we were to enlarge these powers in a quantitative sense to infinity" (p.36). scheler refers to this new element, this new principle as "the spirit" (p.36). according to him, this spirit makes human life highly independent of drives and independent of attachment to environment, in sharp contrast to essentially environment-stricken animals. the spirit, according to scheler, "is not a principle found within the domain of psychic life because it transcends what we call life, even life in man" (p.36). the spirit, according to scheler, is a new phenomenon that cannot be derived from the natural evolution of life but, if reducible to anything, leads back to the ultimate ground of being, of which life is a particular manifestation (p.36). scheler contrasts this new principle (spirit) with the greek "reason," which "in the total universe in which man alone of all creatures participates" (p.5). scheler defines the spirit in such a way that it includes reason but much more than reason, as he writes: the term spirit encompasses the concept of reason, which includes intuition of essences as well as conceptual thought and a class of voluntary and emotional acts such as kindness, love, remorse, reverence, wonder, bliss, despair, and free decision (scheler, p.36). scheler refers to a person as the centre of action in which this new element or principle, spirit, appears with a finite mode of being. according to scheler, a person is "that unity which exists for acts of all possible essential differences in so far as these acts are thought to be executed" (scheler, 1973. p.382). in this regard, a person becomes the spirit's focal point of action. as a result, a person is a being with a spiritual nature. he becomes immaterial in his spiritual nature, whether completely immaterial, with no extrinsic dependence on matter, or partially immaterial, with some extrinsic dependence on matter. we have pure spirit in the first place, and spirit in matter in the second (donceel, p.448). however, this is the fundamental concept of "man": he is a spiritual being. as a result, it is this spirit that enables man to transcend himself, which is lacking in other beings (animal and plant) in the universe. furthermore, man gains tremendous freedom as a result of this spirit. as a result, freedom is yet another title for man's unique nature. aside from all special organisation, the core of his nature is this movement (transcending or freedom), this spiritual act of transcending himself... scheler (1973, p.289). also, according to scheler, if we place at the centre of this concept of spirit a special function of knowledge that it alone can provide, then the essential characteristic of the spiritual being, regardless of its psychological make-up, is its existential liberation from the organic world, its freedom and detachability from the bondage and pressure of life, its dependence on all that belongs to life, including its own drive-motivated intelligence (scheler, 1962. p.37). osuji a philo-anthropological differentiation of man ... 148 only man has the capacity (of freedom) to separate the drive from instinctive behaviour and to separate the state of pleasure from functional enjoyment due to the presence of the spirit in him. man, as a "freedom" animal, can be said to be "more or less than an animal, but he is never simply an animal" (nota, 1983, p.159), but a spiritual being who is no longer a subject to his drive and environment, thus he is free, objectifies his world, and can go into "world openness" (scheler, 1962. p.37). objectification objectification is one of man's basic characteristics. in this regard, man is the only being in the universe who objectsifies his surroundings due to the presence of the spirit within him. according to scheler, man is capable of expanding his environment into the dimension of a world and resisting objectification through the power of the spirit. according to scheler, man is capable of objectifying his own physiological and psychological states, as well as every psychic experience and vital function. to determine this, scheler claims that "spirit belongs to a being capable of strict objectification" (scheler, 1962. p.37). insofar as man is a spirit bearer, scheler believes he "must have reversed, dynamically and in principle, its relationship both to external reality and to itself as compared with the animal, including its intelligence" (scheler, 1962. p.37). objectification implies a liberation of spiritual knowledge from the confines of narrow environmental pleasures and interests. detachment from the environment is required in order to achieve an unlimited expression of man's interest to the point of being open to the world. as a result, "becoming human is to acquire this openness to the world by virtue of the spirit" (scheler, 1962, p.39), rather than being limited to a limited field of interaction as in animal life. scheler claims that animal has no object, in contrast to man's objective nature as a being with an unlimited world or who can turn his world into his own test. for him, an animal lived ecstatically immersed in its environment, which it carries with it like a snail's shell. in fact, an animal lacks the ability to transform his environment into a world and is incapable of resisting its strong drives. this act of objectification, however, is unique to man. it is the most formal category of the spirit's logical aspect. objectification is sought first and foremost as a human value. it is a prerequisite for inventiveness and a means of creative behaviour diversification. instead of seeing and relating to things solely in terms of predetermined needs, as animals do, man sees and interacts with them in a variety of ways. objectification is a form of detachment from reality that is so far for a being that it could be properly described as a universalization of attachment, because it expresses man's unbounded appetite for a being that extends beyond the points of interest given in animal knowledge. because of man's objective knowledge, it is obvious that only man has the ability to objectify or transform his environment. as a result, man is the only "protestant" who does not submit to the dominance of his environment. he is not constrained by his surroundings because he can exhibit behaviour aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june 149 that is visible to the rest of the world to an infinite degree. thus, "to become human is to acquire this openness to the world through the virtue of the spirit" (scheler, 1962. p.37). self-consciousness according to scheler, another characteristic of a spiritual being is self-consciousness, which is solely an essential nature of man that is given as a result of the presence of the spirit. self-consciousness, according to scheler, is an act of "concentration," a metareflex action in the central psychic switchboard. it is a "reflexive act," which means that man's consciousness is capable of reflecting perfectly upon itself; thus, it is conscious of being conscious and aware of being aware. an animal according to scheler, hears and sees without realising it. regardless of an animal's psyche's functionality and usability, scheler maintains that it is not a potential psychologist or physiologist. even though an animal is conscious, it is not self-conscious, so it is unaware that it is conscious of itself. in fact, scheler simply states that an animal is not self-conscious. it does not own itself, is not its own master, and is not aware of its own existence. as a result, the animal does not experience its drives as its own, but as a dynamic push and pull emanating from the environment. scheler believes that the animal's environmental factors are determined by attraction and repulsion, just as the monkey who jumps hither and yonder lives in successive states of ecstasy. it lacks a will that outlasts drives and their changing states, preserving a sense of continuity in the variations of psychophysical conditions. furthermore, scheler discovers fully developed categories of thing and substance in man due to the presence of the spirit in him, which an animal lacks. according to scheler, animals lack the ability to coordinate visual and kinaesthetic space, or the objects revealed in each. in fact, he believes that all animals, whether highly developed or not, lack a centre that connects all of the psychological functions of seeing, hearing, smelling, and grasping, as well as the various things coordinated with them, into a unity that belongs to the same concrete object. animals, on the other hand, lack the unifying principles of time and space, whereas man unifies his space and time through the power of the spirit. this unifying principle in him enables him to have a unified intuition of space in tactile, visual, auditory, and spatial dimensions. in terms of this unifying principle, man can substitute his own heart emptiness for the "infinite emptiness" of space and time (scheler, 1962. p.45). as a result, he can recall the past, the present, and the future and project them into the present. insofar as man is a bearer of spirit, scheler claims that he can only participate in the acts of the super-individual spirit through some kind of identification. scheler, on the other hand, proposed such a spirit on the basis of the essential bond between fact and idea, implying that there is a self-realizing order of ideas independent of human consciousness that could be attributed to the ultimate ground of being as one of its attributes. for him, man participates in such an order in three ways: in an order of essences, where the spirit is intellect; in an objective order of values, where the spirit expresses itself in love; and in a teleological order of the world, where the spirit expresses itself in action (scheler, 1962. osuji a philo-anthropological differentiation of man ... 150 p.48). to emphasise the peculiarity of "spirit," scheler considers "ideation" to be a specifically spiritual act (scheler, 1962. p.48). ideation, according to scheler, is independent of the number of observations and inductive inferences made. he believes it is a completely different act from all practical intelligence. scheler also claims that it (the act of ideation) is the act that truly defines the human spirit. to view the essence, this act is a turning away from reality, contingent "being so now and here." for scheler, buddha's conversion is a perfect example of an act of ideation. in the case of buddha, scheler believes he said emphatically "no" to reality. buddha knew this, according to scheler, when he said it is wonderful to look at the things of this world and tremble at them, and when he developed his technique of de-actualizing the world and self (scheler, 1962. p.52). scheler speaks of the "ascetic" act of "de realisation," and claims that if existence is "resistance," it can only consist in the suspension, in the removal of that life-drive, in relation to which the world above all appears "as resistance," and which is also the condition of all sense-perception of the accidental here-now-then. however, in his opinion, this act can only be performed by that being known as "spirit," because only spirit in its pure "will" form can affect the derealisation of the "feeling-drive-centre," which scheler regards as the mode of access to the "being real" of the real. thus, man is revealed to be the living being capable of being "ascetic" in its approach to life (scheler, 1962. p.54). as a result, he is able to suppress his own vital drives and deny them the sustenance of perceptual images and representations. when comparing ascetic man, who is a spirit bearer, to an animal, scheler observes that an animal always says yes to reality, even when it avoids and flees it. man, on the other hand, is the being who says no to reality; thus, he is the epitome of a protestant. evaluation according to the above explanation of max scheler's concept of man, the hallmark of his philosophy of man is an attempt to stem the rising tide of evolutionary naturalism, and scientific philosophy in general. his philosophical anthropology, as a prominent figure among anti-naturalists, was intended to provide an alternative and acceptable definition of man to the special sciences' theory of man. scheler, the most ardent opponent of the evolutionary theory of man in biology and other sciences that studied man in parts rather than whole, declares that "the increasing multiplicity of the special sciences that deal with man, valuable as they are, tend to hide his true nature more than they reveal it" (scheler pg.6). this, however, demonstrates the nature of man at the time scheler was philosophising. thus, special sciences such as biology, psychology, physiology, and medicine, to name a few, provided partial definitions of man's nature. as a phenomenologist, i have no doubt that scheler's man is to be addressed from his essence rather than the "debased" conception of naturalists or evolutionists who placed man on the same level as the animal with no essential difference. according to scheler, even though man shares some characteristics with other beings in the universe, he is not limited to those characteristics such as vital impulse, instinct, associative memory, and intelligence, and thus he has an ontological status that distinguishes him from other beings in the universe (scheler, pg.35). aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june when considering the evolution of man from his biological psychological nature, it is clear that the great advancement of science revealed numerous different aspects of man: biological, psychological, and so on. in reality, this assumption had only deepened the study of single sections of a whole, as previously mentioned, the analysis of determined "slices" of man's complex reality. as a result, it was felt necessary to consider a human being as a whole, synthesising, harmonising, and integrating the findings of scientific research in order to unite all the various aspects and obtain a new image of man. the distinctiveness of philosophical anthropology stems from this assumption: the need to investigate the inner and profound aspects of man. max scheler investigates the essence and essential constitution of man, as well as his psychic and spiritual natures, in order to arrive at this conclusion. thus, scheler's philosophical anthropology arose, on the one hand, from the need to consider the human being as a whole, as a unit of meaning, and, on the other hand, from finding itself at the crossroads between philosophy, natural science, and the science of man, it re-elaborated a theory that would help the human being to better understand himself and identify the distinguishing characteristics of his existence. to better understand man, scheler never shies away from asking what man is, what his nature is, and where he fits in the world. scheler, on the other hand, investigates this through a rigorous and thorough comparison of man and animal. as a result, scheler developed a new theory about the human being. as a result, scheler established a new concept of man, as well as a new science of man that was beneficial to humanity. regarding man's bio-psychic nature, he agrees that it is the nature that man shares with other beings in the universe. this, however, implies that scheler accepts the naturalists' definition of man, even though he believes that man transcends the nature posited by the naturalists. indeed, it is clear that scheler's man emerges from the naturalists' perspective. that is, it begins with impulse and progresses to the spiritual. in this regard, the naturalists' view of man serves as a foundation for scheler's conception of man. nonetheless, scheler did not confine man to the realm of naturalists. as a result, he goes on to say that man is a spiritual being who, by virtue of the spirit within him, transcends even life itself. man, according to scheler, transcends not only himself but also his environment and can project it into world openness. however, man's transcendent act becomes his essential nature. after emphasising the spiritual nature that makes scheler's man a spiritual being, one can assert that man is a spirit in matter, with the spirit manifesting itself in the body. as a result, man is both spirit and body. as a psychic being with other beings in the universe, man is subject to all the laws of matter, implying his reliance on impulse, instinct, associative memory, and intelligence. as a result, man is still a natural animal operating in space and time. as a spirit, man exists above space and time, fully present to himself and capable of assimilating the rest of the cosmos and assimilating it with himself. however, because man has spirit, he is the master of the universe because he is no longer limited to natural things. he projects himself, lives an infinite life, and transforms his surroundings into whatever he desires. 151 osuji a philo-anthropological differentiation of man ... conclusion: in conclusion, scheler's philosophy of man is one that encourages self-actualization and self-realization. it enables man to transition from being a slave to his environment, self, and life to becoming master of the same. clearly, no one in our world today doubts that man, above all other beings in the universe, has conquered and transformed nature, his environment, and the world at large. man has constructed bridges, aeroplanes, and houses, among other things. in fact, man, unlike other beings in the universe, has objectified his environment and is constantly self-conscious of what is going on around him. in fact, man has accomplished a great deal in this universe because of the "spirit" he possesses. finally, according to scheler's view of man, man has conquered his environment, nature, and world, but man, as we can see today, remains a problem to himself. as a result, he has not conquered himself. references aquinas, t. (1939). summa theologica. ed. joseph pecci oblata. paris: bibilolae editoris, aristotle. (1941). the basic works of aristotle. ed. richard mekecon, new york: random house. (1975). metaphysics. trans. by hugh tredennick. london: harvard university press. augustine. (1958). the city of god. introduction by etienne gilson. trans. by gerald walsh et al. garden city n.y: image books, baldwin, j. m. (1960). dictionary of philosophy and psychology ii, glouces mass: peter smith. brugger. (1966). kenneth. philosophical dictionary. new york city: dorms associates, inc. buber, m. (1968). the knowledge of man. ed. by maurice friedman. new york: bronxville. (1955). between man and man. trans. by ronald gregor smith. boston: beacon press. cassirer, e. (1944). an essay on man: an introduction to a philosophy of human culture.london: yale university press. darwin, c. (1968). the origin of species. ed by j. w. burrow, england: penguin books. descartes, r. (1993). meditations on first philosophy. trans. by donald cress indianapolis: hackett publishing company. donceel, j.f. (1965). philosophical anthropology. usa: sheed and ward inc. edwards, p. (1967). the encyclopaedia of philosophy. 7&8. n.y: macmillan publishing co, inc. frings, m. (1965). a concise introduction into the world of a great thinker. pittsburgh, pa: duquesne university press. gasset, jose ortega y. (1957). man and the people. trans.by willard r.trask. new york: w.w. norton and company inc. hegel, g.w.f. (1953). reason in history. trans. by robert s. hartman. new york: 152 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june macmillan publishing company. iroegbu, p. (1995). metaphysics: the kpim of philosophy. owerri: international university press ltd. mondin, b. (1985). philosophical anthropology. rome: urbaniana university press. nietzsche, f. (1967). the will to power. trans. by walter kaufman and r.j. hollingdale. new york: vintage books. nota, j. h. (1983). max scheler: the man and his work. chicago: franciscan herald press. plato. (1967). the collected dialogues of plato. ed. by edith hamilton and huntington cairns. new jersey: princeton university press. reese, w. l. (1980). dictionary of philosophy and religion. new jersey: humanities press inc. sartre, jean-paul. (1956). being and nothingness. trans. by hazel e. barnes. new york: washington square press. scheler, m. (1962). man's place in nature. trans. by hans meyerhoffs, new york: the noonday press. ……….(1973). formalism in ethics and non-formal ethics of values. trans. by manfred s. frings and roger l. funk, evanston usa: northwestern university press. stumpf, s. e. (1980). socrates to sartre: a history of philosophy. usa: the mcgrawhill companies, inc. osuji a philo-anthropological differentiation of man ... 153 aquino volume3 issue 3 june 2023 abstract this inquiry interrogates the phenomenon of insecurity in nigeria. the study admits that for decades, insecurity not only abounds in nigeria but hampers legitimate ventures and meaningful business activities. the paper avows that this ugly phenomenon has tremendous and dire effects on national development. since insecurity is an ill-wind that blows in no good, this inquiry investigates insecurity in nigeria to ascertain its causes, nature and consequences on national development. the study analytically finds that insecurity is one of the most outstanding challenges plaguing nigerian state and its sustainable development. this is as it scares foreign and local investors, hinders business and developmental strides, and impacts negatively on human living condition. the study notes that the spate of insecurity in nigeria will persist because of its unaddressed propelling factors, governments' poor approach and unwillingness to curb insecurity, and the unmotivated law enforcement agencies within the country. key words: analysis, development, insecurity, nigeria, philosophical introduction in her pristine period, nigeria was among africa's fast developing countries. recently, nigeria is on her downward un-developing plunge due to the increasing insecurity in the country. based on her spate of insecurity, some societal institutions and infrastructures have become archaic or moribund, while others have remained weak and insufficient signs of national development. (aluta, 2021). worst still, the momentum of insecurity is far from abetting. yet, successive nigerian leadership is not harnessing the latest technologies for efficient security of the country. this is despite the designation of national insecurity as a major issue in government and allocation of huge amount to it (aluta, 2021). this neglect is in fact demonstrated by governments' low rates of ict penetration in the curbing of insecurity in the country (aluta, 2021). this is too demonstrated in government's “wanting, selective, disequilibrium, reactive rather than proactive” measures against insecurity in the country (chinweuba & nwobodo, 2022, p.34). the implication is that nigerian state has not confronted frontally and decisively the pandemic insecurity in the country. as such, nigerian society is now fraught with unprecedented kinds of insecurity such as conflicts, terrorism, cultism, violence, robbery, 42 a philosophical analysis of insecurity in nigeria and its effects on national development charles nweke, ph.d. department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka and francis michael okechukwu enyosiobi department of philosophy nnamdi azikiwe university, awka kidnapping, banditry, militancy, swindling, to mention but a few. the national concern over insecurity predicates on the fact that security is the fulcrum of business activities and economic growth (omode & omode, 2015). thus, an insecure society like nigeria repels foreign and domestic investments, and turns existing economic activities to its low level. with this situation, national income remains at the low level, and national development which depends on this income remains a mirage. in congruence with this reality, nwanegbo and odigbo (2013) aver that insecurity is the pillar upon which every meaningful development would not be achieved or sustained in human society. aside the unprecedented series of agitations visible in kidnapping and abduction, armed robberies, bombing, and carnages in the past decades, nigerian state is now faced with terrorism which is the most dastard of all insecurities. this has spread even in the hinterlands with unimaginable frequency and intensity. as such, human lives and properties are wasted on daily basis; a gory sight that envelope the citizenry with apprehension and uncertainty. in all these, national development has remained a mere dream; fading away at the dawn of each insecure day. the situation is today worse as human safety and protection of properties are now not guaranteed. yet, the poor governance, corruption and unemployment in the country exacerbate the fragile situation making the country a lasting theatre of insecurity. what then are the dire consequences of persistent insecurity on nigerian national development? what are the causes and nature of insecurity in nigeria? these worries from time-to-time form subjects of national discourse; hence this study approaches them from philosophical perspective. understanding the concepts of insecurity and development insecurity is a social disorder; a symptom of some anti-social and criminal activities. insecurity is the antithesis of security. it is the condition of being susceptible to danger, loss, harm, injury or pain. it is the state of vulnerability to harm and loss of life, property or livelihood. insecurity is the anxiety one experiences when one feels unsafe, vulnerable or prone to danger, loss, harm, injury or pain. it is a societal condition replete with tensions, perplexity and apprehensions. as such, beland (2005) defines insecurity as the state of fear or anxiety stemming from a concrete or alleged lack of protection. aluta (2021) alludes to this idea, opining that insecurity is “the state of fear or anxiety, stemming from a concrete or alleged lack of protection, a lack of or inadequate freedom from danger” (p. 1). insecurity thus refers to “lack or inadequate freedom from danger; a state of being open or subject to danger or threat of danger, where danger is the condition of being susceptible to harm or injury, state of being exposed to risk or anxiety, where anxiety is a vague unpleasant emotion that is experienced in anticipation of some misfortune” (achumba, ighomereho, & akpor-robaro, 2013, p.80). moreover, akin (2008) insinuates that insecurity encapsulates the situation that exists as a result of absence of measures for the protection of persons, information and property against hostile forces; persons, influences and actions. thus, insecurity is the existence of harmful conditions within which people cannot go about their normal daily activities without threats to their lives or properties. it embraces situations of poor or no protection 43 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june and safety of the citizenry, resources, businesses and the nation at large against sabotage or violent occurrences. it is too a situation of instability, non predictability of daily life, protection from crime, and freedom from psychological harm. insecurity is thus the presence of threats as well as the inability of state actors to rise to the challenges posed by those threats with expediency and expertise. from the above discourses, it stands that the word “insecurity” is a condition created by criminal activities and the threats resulting from them. insecurity is thus not actually the criminal activities, but the general understanding of the atmosphere created by the criminal activities; an atmosphere that portends threat, danger and harm. this means that insecurity is propelled by crimes. hence, insecurity is the implication of criminal activities; a state of uncertainty and fear regarding the safety of people in the society; their properties and ventures. this state of uncertainty is inculcated by persistent criminal activities within a society. based on this meaning, omede and omede (2015) view insecurity as the tension resulting from the criminal activities of boko haram, militants, ethnic militias, kidnappers, armed robbers, and others. at the heart of civil society however is national development. this is a situation where societal infrastructures and amenities are consistently in place and functional. these infrastructures include good roads, schools, healthcare system and public services. development also points to adequate “provision of human basic needs of health care, clean water, shelter, food, economic opportunities, welfare packages, better living conditions and equal economic opportunities among the people” (chinweuba, 2019, p.249). development as well involves the “stable and tremendous growth of gross national product (gnp) and gross national income (gni) which constitute the revenue and wealth of a country” (chinweuba, 2019, p.248). this means that a society starts under developing once it cannot sustain its income and provide sufficient basic amenities, economic opportunities and freedom for the greater number of its population. insecurity in nigerian society insecurity in nigerian society is visible in the poor protection of the country from crime and the prevalent human vulnerability to psychological and physical harm. this is why aluta (2021) argues that insecurity is not only the prevalence of threats, but the inability of nigerian state actors to rise to the challenges posed by these threats with expediency and expertise. omode and omode (2015) allude to this meaning maintaining that: the speed with which evil is growing in nigeria and the merciless ways that lives of innocent ones are being wasted are worrisome. people are burdened on a daily basis with psychological and emotional trauma resulting from gory sights of lifeless and mutilated bodies of loved family members, close associates and colleagues littered on the streets (p.120). 44 nweke & enyosiobi a philosophical analysis of insecurity in nigeria... the condition of insecurity has been in nigeria from its pristine time, yet it has in recent time taken a new turn. thus, every year records an unprecedented case of the spate of insecurity in the country; a record characterized by geometric progression. insecurity in nigeria has however become visible in the existence of the activities of anti-social and criminal groups like; boko haram and islamic state of west african province (iswap) terrorism, fulani herdsmen menace, unknown gun men (ugm) activities, incessant human kidnappings, security forces' extra judicial arrests/killings, banditry, fraudulent actions and armed robbery alongside the law-abiding citizens and their legitimate activities. from east to west and north to south therefore, evidence of insecurity in nigeria is seen in the killing and maiming of innocent people, kidnapping, banditry, swindling, robbery, etc., that abound in various nooks and crannies of the society. this is such that since nigerian return to democratic rule, many lives and properties have been lost to activities culminating in insecurity. the vanguard newspaper of may 18, 2014 put the death toll at more than 12,000 with more than 8000 injured or maimed while thousands of other innocent nigerians displaced. according to okpaga (2012) however, between july 27, 2009 and february 17, 2012, boko haram carried out not less than 53 deadly attacks. these are heightened by the violent ethnic, tribal, political and religious violent situations. these are now exacerbated by the criminal activities of unknown gun men (ugm), niger delta militants, kidnappers, pipeline vandals, armed robbers, drug traffickers, cultists, yahoo-yahoo syndicates, fulani herdsmen and arsonists. this condition has unabatedly continued even in recent time where these attacks and similar ones are creating widespread insecurity among the citizenry and hampering development activities. accenting to the reality of these insecurity situations, olumuyiwa, adeoye and sultan (2019) observe that; within the last decades, nigeria has been engulfed in different ethno-religious and political violence resulting in ample human casualties and material losses. the country has witnessed other forms of violent confrontations; the most heinous has been terrorism, unleashed by the islamic group called boko haram. the sect has taken north-east nigeria under siege and continues to undermine nigerian statehood as well as its authoritative use of instrument of coercion (p. 29). these activities indeed resonate thomas hobbes' famous dictum: “man for man is basically selfish and is moved to action not by his intellect but by his appetites, desires and passions”. causes of insecurity in nigeria insecurity is a symptom of anti-social or criminal activities. as such, the causes of insecurity are the crimes that give rise to it. sources of these crimes in nigeria are however traceable to a number of factors. among these factors is the failure of successive nigerian governments to provide good governance (igbuzor, 2011). this has resulted to 45 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june institutional failure or what fukuyama (2004) calls breakdown of institutional infrastructures. as such, societal institutions in nigeria has now become shaky, and the result is the paralysis of the existing set of social constraints; the societal rules and code of conduct that once held social order. governments' failure manifesting in the poor delivery of public goods, services and basic needs also create a hunger situation that make people easily recruited for nefarious activities that lead to insecurity. the poor human condition resulting from governments' failure also creates a pool of frustrated people that are akin to violence at a slight provocation. another cause of insecurity in nigeria is the pervasive social unfairness, material inequalities and disparities in life opportunities. these are giving rise to grievances, disaffection and resentment in a large number of people. this is more so as it is perceived to be stemming from obvious marginalization perpetuated by those in government. in reference to this reality, onuoha (2011) reveals that a large number of nigerians especially the youths are frustrated, and have lost hope in nigerian state. this disillusionment is now being expressed in anti-social activities that culminate in insecurity. insecurity is also brought by ethno-religious conflicts that constantly rises from distrust, struggle for hegemony and dominance among various ethnic and religious groups in the country. thus, the various ethnic and religious groups in nigeria lack cordiality and are laden with mutual suspicion and apprehension that frequently manifest in violent confrontation and insecurity (achumba, et al., 2013). similar crises that result to insecurity also arise from diverse nigerians' political consciousness and identity, quest to acquire political power and exercise control over national resources and the nation at large. since independence, there has been little rapport between the nigerian public and successive governments. this is visible in the masses not being carried along or allowed to participate fully in governance. moreover, draconian policies and austerity measures are brought to bear on the public without public opinion or consent. along with these are governments' neglect of the increasing poverty; unemployment, environmental degradation, injustice, corruption and small arms proliferation in the country. these are coupled by despotism which regularly rears its ugly head in nigerian so-called democracy. these situations have provoked violent reactions from the public which develops into full blown insecurity. a typical instance of such violent reactions was the “end sars” violent movement that swept away security formations in nigerian society in 2020. apart from these, insecurity in nigeria is exacerbated by general loss of cultural and communal values. the traditional values in many nigerian cultures were replete with endearing features of collectivism, loyalty to authority and community, truthfulness, honesty, hard work, mutual harmony, abhorrence of theft, high value for life, tolerance and love for one another. chinweuba (2019) reveals that these values made nigerian society safe and secure but 46 nweke & enyosiobi a philosophical analysis of insecurity in nigeria... the dilapidating nature of these systems have also broken the age long moral resolve of various people thereby propelling people to detach from culturally appreciated values and traditions. with this development, the internal equilibrium of personhood and the interiority of the being of the individual in nigerian communities which derives from the culturally appreciated values and traditions that play crucial role of national integration, social control and bond between the individual and other members of the community is broken. the result of these is intrinsic crisis on the part of the individual which eventually develops to groups and communal conflicts (p. 63). enhancing the spate of insecurity in nigeria is also the porous borders through which migrants' movements are inadequately unchecked. with this, there is unchecked influx of weapons and criminal elements from neighbouring countries into nigeria. this weapon proliferation enables criminal groups to have easy access to arms with which they foster insecurity (hazen and horner, 2007). thus, nigeria is estimated to be housing over seventy percent of illegal weapons in west africa (edeko, 2011). coupled with this is the prevailing internal rural/urban drift which sees jobless and unskilled youths migrating to the urban centres from the hinterlands. the frustration of these youths stemming from their inability to get well paid jobs or gainful employment often endears them to crimes which cause insecurity. in congruence with this, nwagboso (2012) maintains that the failure of successive nigerian governments to address the challenges of poverty and unemployment is one of the major causes of insecurity in the country. in some parts of nigeria like the niger delta, the neglect of social responsibilities by multinational companies and successive nigerian government also leads to youth restiveness and criminal activities that stoke insecurity. nweke (2013) refers to this niger delta question as “the paradoxical condition of the niger delta”, positing that the oil in niger delta accounts for over ninety percent of nigerian revenue. yet, the indigenes are unemployed, impoverished, isolated and marginalized to a level below the world bank's benchmark. as such, seventy two percent of families in the niger delta area are within the poverty brackets. hazen and horner (2007) therefore describe this situation as 'paradox of plenty'. this is a situation where the country earns a great deal of revenue through oil sales, but fails to use these earnings to meet the needs of its people and to develop infrastructure as well as the economy. this is coupled by decades of poor governance that creates poor human conditions and makes people vulnerable to actions that constitute insecurity. coupled with the aforementioned factors, insecurity in nigeria is exacerbated by the weak security system in the country. this results from inadequate equipment of the security agencies seen in the poor provision of weaponry, manpower and training. this has consistently led to the poor attitudinal and behavioural disposition and nonchalance of security personnel towards insecurity in the country. it has also resulted to security 47 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june personnel assigned to deal with given security situations not having the expertise, professionalism and equipment necessary to effectively handle the situations. due to poor training, many security personnel are even swallowed by ethnic, religious, communal or personal sentiments and interests rather than service to the nation. thus, instead of being national watch dogs and defending national interest and values, and protecting people from harm by criminals, they soon become saboteurs of government effort, by supporting and fuelling insecurity through either leaking vital security information or aiding and abetting criminals to acquire weapons or to escape the long arm of the law” (achumba, et al., 2013, p. 82). from the discourses above, it stands that what causes insecurity in nigeria are criminal activities and crimes. the experience and knowledge of these crimes coupled with the irresponsiveness of law enforcement agencies inculcates the sense of insecurity on the members of the society. despite these, insecurity is as well caused by poor government policies and approaches to national issues that affect the public. this is coupled by nigerian modernization process that truncates peoples' normal way of life because it is complex, disordered and crises-laden. yet, nigerian state “lacks functional, effective and necessary institutions or palliatives required in cushioning and managing the stress, crises, suffering and other effects of societal modernization” (chinweuba, 2021, p. 28). in these situations, people are faced with insecurity stemming from their fear of losing their possessions. insecurity is however exacerbated by poor education, poor infrastructure, inadequate basic amenities, increasing unemployment, inflation, poverty, materialism, corrupt practices, youth restiveness victimization, marginalization, domination, exploitation and display of impunity replete in nigerian society. nature of insecurity in nigerian society insecurity in nigeria happens is physical and psychological ways. crimes reflect the physical insecurity which is the most visible form of insecurity. yet, physical insecurity feeds the psychological dimension of insecurity that lingers in peoples' minds. the speed with which insecurity is growing in nigeria and the merciless ways innocent lives are being wasted however makes insecurity in nigeria quite peculiar. thus, people are burdened on daily basis with psychological and emotional trauma resulting from gory sights of lifeless and mutilated bodies of loved family members, close associates and colleagues littered on the streets. insecurity in nigeria however displays a disregard to the rule of law and sanctity of human life. this is why of great concern to nigerians is the brutality and impunity with which insecurity is unleashed on the innocent public. generally, therefore, insecurity is unleashed by organized and formidable intolerant groups. this display is often characterized by the indignifying, degrading and disdainful manner in which the innocent victims are treated. for instance, insecurity is often spurred by scenarios when the victims are stripped naked before they are gruesomely burnt, killed or cut in pieces some of the victims are riddled with bullets while others are hacked to death 48 nweke & enyosiobi a philosophical analysis of insecurity in nigeria... with knives, machetes or small axes. others had different parts of their bodies like hands, legs, nose, etc., amputated in gruesome manners. some parts of the bodies of these victims like the head, eyes, penis, breasts, etc., are taken away while some are buried in shallow graves to conceal the act. some of those buried in shallow graves are often exhumed by animals, weather or climatic conditions, and sight of them remains prompt reminders of the prevalent insecurity in the country (chinweuba & nwobodo, 2022, pp.36-37). spectacularly, insecurity is characterized by spontaneous attacks. some of these attacks happen at ungodly and unknown hours when the victims are unprepared and least expect them. okoye (2019) attests that insecurity is also characterized by reckless killing of innocent people. adding to these features are unending cases of kidnappings where victims are taken captive by the culprits and ransoms demanded are often offset by the friends or relatives of the victims to secure the victim's freedom. in some of the scenes of insecurity in nigeria, some victims are often forced to watch as their relatives, children or friends are maimed or murdered in cold blood. these features of insecurity are indeed punctuated by incessant banditry and arson in which houses, cars, etc., of the victims are burnt and valuables like ornaments, documents, money, etc. are carted away. apart from these, insecurity in nigeria is also characterized by pandemonium, quagmire and dilemma that leaves trails of psychological trauma on the public and makes them feel uncertain about the future and their lives. moreover, insecurity in nigeria often drives people away from their locations, homes and communities. these victims often find themselves homeless or in internally displaced persons' camps (idp) where life is precarious, uncertain, regrettable as the sense of insecurity continues to linger in their psyche. rationale behind the increasing insecurity in nigerian society part of the reasons behind the spate of insecurity in nigeria is the unwillingness of nigerian state actors to tackle the factors behind insecurity decisively. in this direction, the perpetrators of insecurity in some parts of the country are pampered by those in government. as such, some of the trials of the captured perpetrators of insecurity eventually become a mirage. many of such culprits from the northern part of the country termed repentant also appear to be more compensated by being recruited or absorbed into the national army. this is a consistent action that has now compromised the nigerian law enforcement agencies' onslaught against insecurity. this has even made the law enforcement agents vulnerable to attacks in which many of them have lost their lives. on many occasions, the law enforcement agents had also been instructed not to attack or arrest culprits of insecurity especially in the north (chinweuba & nwobodo, 2022). this open bigotry also favours culprits sharing similar ethnicity, regions, faith and opinions with major stakeholders in government. it thus stands that insecurity in nigeria is being 49 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june propelled by the “selective tolerance” of people in government. “selective tolerance” points to that tolerance applied only to perpetrators of insecurity from a particular group, race, religion, nation, zone and region” (ding, 2015, p.30). it is on this reality that olumuyiwa, et al., (2019) attest that nigerian government has responded to…ethnic, religious, and political unrests with military approach, commission reports, and arrests. yet, these measures have been effective, evident in the incessant armed insurrection in the country. in few cases where violence was settled, bringing perpetrators to justice becomes a mirage and government has failed to address the root causes of such conflicts (p.29). on the other hand, it is a known phenomenon that many nigerian politicians use culprits of insecurity to achieve their nefarious purpose of capturing power during elections. these culprits are as well used by disgruntled nigerian politicians to rig elections, cause mayhem during and after elections. it is on this note that some scholars argue that the unending insecurity situations in nigeria “has a political undertone or inclination calculated to serve the interest of certain political gods, who have been dissatisfied and disgruntled about the political manifestations in the country” (achumba, et al., 2013, p.79). effects of insecurity on national development national development is the primary goal of every well meaning government. this function is also essentially dependent on funds accruing from economic activities within the country. this means that “the gnp and gni of every society are the tools used to foster social development that in turn enhances the existential condition of the citizenry” (chinweuba, 2019, p. 248). a considerable level of economic activities is however enhanced by maximum security and stability within the society. apart from the revenues needed for development, the survival of existent development is too dependent on the maximal security of the state. in both ways, insecurity has remained an outstanding bane of nigerian national development. it hampers the role of government in the society, threatens business activities and hinders governments' generation of income. from every index; “the insecurity environment of business in nigeria” obstructs the revenue of government and weakens its funding of infrastructures that stand as national development (achumba, et al., 2013, p. 83). thus, an insecure environment of business with variables like theft, armed robbery, kidnapping, assassination, bombings, etc., deprives nigerian society of required funds. therefore, the nigerian insecurity situation can, and in many cases, actually halted business operations during the periods of violence and also caused the outright closure of many enterprises especially in the areas or zones where incidences of insecurity is rife and are on daily occurrence, in a bid to protect lives of operators and business property. generally, if there is no peace 50 nweke & enyosiobi a philosophical analysis of insecurity in nigeria... and security, it is extremely difficult for businesses to survive. ordinary citizens having small and medium scale businesses cannot open shops for business transactions (achumba, et al., 2013, p.89). this amounts to halting of government revenues and by extension national development. besides making life miserable for nigerians, the unprecedented spate of insecurity in the country gives the damaging signal to the international community and potential investors that nigeria is a high-risk zone and thus not safe, secure and suitable for investment and business activities. based on this, many foreign firms and entrepreneurs decline to invest and do business in nigeria (chinweuba, 2021). as such, nigerian government now grapples with little foreign direct investment whose returns are insufficient for the enormous national development at hand. the spate of insecurity in nigeria also affects the so many domestic businesses operating in the country; thereby depriving the state of the required financial revenue which would have been used for national development. some of the sources of this insecurity like terrorist bombings have even led to enormous loss of life, public infrastructure and property that constitute the existing national development. with these, the implication is that insecurity prevailing conundrum in nigeria negatively affects the organizations' of business activities, the entire business organization, business operations; production, marketing, finance, human resource and government revenue. these notwithstanding, insecurity discourage government investment and make proposed investment unattractive to people in government. this is based on the conviction that insecurity prevents conducive environment for its development and existence. similarly, insecure situation increases the cost of national development either through direct loss of goods and properties or the cost of taking precautions against the risks of insecurity and the prevalent uncertainty within the society. from general observations therefore, successive nigerian governments spend whooping amounts to ensure the security of the citizenry, government's personnel and infrastructures. this cost has serious impact on national development as it reduces the fund allocated to it. as such, insecurity remains a drain on national resources at the expense of other sectors of national development like health, education, infrastructures, etc. nevertheless, insecurity is seen limiting nigerian available human resources. this is as it triggers migration of skilled resources leading to dearth in skilled labour. the fear of insecurity limits people's ability to work effectively and consequently hinders their general contribution to national development. there are also occasions where skilled people become victims of attack and the nation losses experienced human resources. as such, human resources are seen migrating out of nigeria leaving the country with manpower shortage that does not augur well for efficient national development. in these directions, insecurity frustrates “economic and technological transformation keeping nigeria in a perpetual state of economic dependence, loss of productive human resources and general apathy and discontentment” (omede & omede, 2015, p. 121). it then repackages the country into hobbesian state of nature where life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short” (hobbes, 1985, p.186). 51 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june towards security and nigerian national development the fight against insecurity in nigeria has been reactive, devoid of proactive measures and modern innovation. this is why it is not yielding lasting results. in order to curb insecurity therefore, the federal government has to sincerely criminalize incidences that leads to crime and criminals has to be treated equally. this is necessary as selective tolerance over crime by present nigerian government has not ameliorated the increasing insecurity in the country. however, it is more efficient to tackle insecurity from its sources. thus, sources of insecurity like national injustice, inequity, marginalization, poverty, unemployment, environmental degradation, corruption, porous borders, small arms proliferation and human general dissatisfaction has to be addressed. efforts to tackle insecurity in nigeria will therefore be effective when there is a sincere government intervention that addresses human challenges and dissatisfaction of the vast majority of nigerian population. this intervention has become germane as victims of government neglect have continued to suffer deprivation and injustice; a condition still leading to gross dissatisfaction and disaffection that contribute to insecurity. to curb the menace of insecurity therefore requires visionary leadership. this is a leadership that is detribalized and able to inculcate in the followers the idea of common citizenship. it is then imperative for nigeria to have leaders who would not be limited to championing egoistic and frivolous ends but goals that impact positively on the citizenry. only such leaders will mould into harmony the conflicting ethnic and religious aspirations that truncate mutual trust and societal security. good governance is thus a fervent panacea to insecurity challenges in nigeria. the war against insecurity in nigeria would therefore be won by raising governance standards. this can be done by cultivating the culture of good governance where the government is responsible, responsive and accountable to the people. this is true as insecurity is not dissociated from poor governance and its resultant poor human condition. good governance therefore determines peace and security as it drives collective wellbeing through planned, effectively implemented policies and human development programs. besides, there is great need for a paradigm shift of values from the current order which has driven people to activities that result to insecurity. this is because functional values play positive roles in curbing insecurity in a country. nigeria can therefore get it right as a nation only when her values are right. along this lane, government at all levels are to seek a better understanding of the underlying causes and dynamics of the insecurity in the country with the aim of providing effective conflict prevention and management strategies to diverse groups and tribes. to overcome insecurity also, there is great need for intelligence gathering and surveillance. this will help the law enforcement agents to be proactive and reasonably predict potential crime with near-perfect accuracy rather than being reactive. along with this, the fight against insecurity requires the use of modern computer-based closed circuit television cameras (cctv). this will enhance surveillance, investigation of criminal activities, raising of criminal alarms, broadening of security tips, disrupting of potential attacks and strengthening of the security system. along this lane, government must continue to engage the security agencies, avail them of modern technological devices for combating crime and ensure their capacity building to nweke & enyosiobi a philosophical analysis of insecurity in nigeria... 52 meet the global standard. government must too modernize the security agencies with training, intelligence sharing, advance technology, logistics, motivation and orientation necessary for their performance. this should be accompanied by provision of incentives, good conditions of service, and social security. the necessity of these lies in the fact that these will enhance operational capabilities and prompt responses of nigerian security agencies to insecurity challenges. the government must embark on a serious orientation that will make the citizenry understand that security is everybody's business. the citizenry must be made to see the threats insecurity constitutes to every organization, civil society groups and individuals. everybody must be then convinced to fight insecurity in order to achieve enabling environment where genuine ventures will be free, safe and secure. conclusion this treatise explores the spate of insecurity in nigeria to determine especially its impacts on national development. the study discovers that insecurity is a scenario of uncertainty and fear regarding human life and property. this scenario can apart from criminal activities be created by poor government policies, austerity measures and approach to national issues which portend dire effects on public life. the resulting insecurity not only affects individual investments but also national development. as such, insecurity is linked to national under-development. this is as it prevents conducive environment necessary for infrastructural development, and destroys existing infrastructures that stand as national development. under the condition of peace and security however, people and government can direct their efforts and resources towards improving human life and infrastructures. the best means to curb insecurity then is to tackle its propelling sources. this is the area nigerian governments has neglected for so long; hence the spate of insecurity in the country. and coupling with this neglect is the nigerian governments' unwillingness or inability to decisively confront crimes in some parts of the country. as such, nigerian state has been consistently ranked low in the global peace index (gpi). references achumba, i. c., ighomereho, o. s., & akpor-robaro, m. o. m. (2013). “security challenges in nigeria and the implications for business activities and sustainable development”. journal of economics and sustainable development 4(2), aluta, c. (2021). “security challenges in nigeria and the implications for business activities and sustainable development”. the nigeria-south africa chamber of commerce webinar held on 28th january 2021. https//:nsacc.org.ng/securitychallenges-in-nigeria-and-implications-for-business-act. beland, d. (2005). the political construction of collective insecurity: from moral panic to blame avoidance and organized irresponsibility, center for european studies working paper series 126. chinweuba, g. e. (2021). low level endemic corruption in nigerian society. mauritius: 53 aquino journal of philosophy, vol 3 issue 1, 2023 issn: 2786-9792 june lambert academic publishing. chinweuba, g. e. (2019). “migration and conflict in nigeria: the socio-political nexus”. in fundamentals of peace and conflict management, edited by ezeugwu, c. e. & udabah, c. u., 60-68. enugu: his glory publications. chinweuba, g. e., & nwobodo, j. c. (2022). “tolerance and the challenge of insecurity in nigerian society: perspective from karl poppers paradox of tolerance”. international journal of management, social sciences, peace and conflict studies. (ijmsspcs), 5(4), 33-44. ding, j. z. (2015). “pluralistic and multicultural re-examination of “tolerance/toleration”. journal of east west thought 2(8), 23-30 edeko s. e. (2011). “the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in africa: a case study of the niger delta in nigeria”. sacha journal of environmental studies 1(2), 55-80 fukuyama, f. (2004). state-building: governance and world order in the 21st century. ithaca: cornell university press. hazen, j.m. & horner, j. (2007). small arms, armed violence, and insecurity in nigeria: the niger delta in perspective. switzerland: small arms survey. hobbes, t. (1985). leviathan. london: penguin books. igbuzor, o. (2011). “peace and security education: a critical factor for sustainable peace and national development”. international journal of peace and development studies, 2(1), 1-7. nwagboso, c.i. (2012). “security challenges and economy of the nigerian state (2007 –2011)”. american international journal of contemporary research 2(6), 244258. nwanegbo, c.j. & odigbo, j. (2013). “security and national development in nigeria: t h e t h r e a t o f b o k o h a r a m ” . r e t r i e v e d o n 2 2 . 0 7 . 2 0 1 4 . nweke, c. (2013). “the philosophy of non-violence and the niger delta question”. journal of the department of philosophy, nnamdi azikwe university, awka, nigeria 5(1), 5064. okoye, u. m. (2019). “karl popper's paradox of tolerance vis-à-vis fulani herdsmen crisis in nigeria”. philosophy and praxis: journal of the nigeria philosophical association 9, 34-52. olumuyiwa t. f., adeoye, o. a., & sultan, k. (2019). “the nigerian state and bokoharam terrorism: reflecting on the performance of public institutions”. ubuntu: journal of conflict and social transformation 8(1), 29-49. omede, j. (2012). “reformatting nigerian secondary and post secondary education to meet unemployment and security challenges in nigeria in the 21st century”. research journal in organizational psychology and educational studies (rjopes) 1(4), 238 242. omede, j., & omede, a. a. (2015). “terrorism and insecurity in nigeria: moral, values and religious education as panaceas”. journal of education and practice 6(11), 120 126. onouha, f.c. (2011). “nigeria's vulnerability to terrorism: the imperative of a counter religious extremism and terrorism (conrest)strategy”. peace and conflict monitor (2 february 2011). http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id www.ijhssnet.com/.../vol.../29.pdf nweke & enyosiobi a philosophical analysis of insecurity in nigeria... 54 http://www.ijhssnet.com/.../vol.../29.pdf 